自然的复兴与帝国的隐喻：透纳及现代英国自然观的转变
主讲人：渠敬东
主持人：宋晓霞
时间：2014年9月26日14：00-16：00
地点：中央美术学院美术馆学术报告厅
2014年9月26日下午14：00至16：00，当代学术开放讲堂在我馆举办。此次讲堂的主讲人是北京大学社会学系教授、博士生导师渠敬东。渠敬东指出不应当仅仅从绘画的角度解读英国风景画家透纳（Joseph Turner, 1775-1851）的作品。透纳的作品交织着自然宗教与自然史、帝国的兴与衰、人性与习俗变迁的母题，几乎与英国的自然状态学说、自然神论、海洋自由学说、博物学以及浪漫主义与象征主义都有密切的关联。透纳的水彩画、油画和版画集大成地展现了大英帝国的时期的自然观、宗教观、科学观和政治观，与大英帝国发展直至衰败的历史进程相呼应。只有从整体语境出发才能真正把握被罗斯金称为19世纪“绘画界伟大的统治者”的透纳的画作。来自中央美术学院及北京其他院校的学子、社会公众参加了此次讲座。
从英国文学中的经典形象鲁宾逊看大海的意象、自然观的转变与透纳的绘画
渠敬东教授的讲座从英国文学中的经典形象，丹尼尔·笛福小说中的人物鲁宾逊·克鲁索谈起并由此谈及透纳对英国文明发展脉络的把握。鲁宾逊这一形象反映出英国人在宗教、自然、科学等方面观念的转变。正是这些转变造就了整个大英帝国。
17至18世纪，随着中产阶级的兴起，西方文明经历时代变革，人类精神随之处在紧张和焦虑之中。可以说，现代性起源于人的不安、焦虑和无适感。来自贫民阶层上层的鲁宾逊是这一背景下出现的新形象。在时代变革和整个社会弥漫的紧张情绪中，大海成为摆脱封建制度对土地的依赖，新的商贸关系得以建立和拓展的新世界。这一点与英国、西班牙的航海大发现密切相关。鲁宾逊的所有激情不可遏制地投向了大海，这种冲动的根源在于解救人的危机。鲁宾逊曾说水手是世界上的敢死队。他们蔑视恐惧，终年和大风浪搏斗。海洋的意向和英国重商主义传统实际上是连接着无限的死亡感和无限的生存感的一种希望。征服海洋，到天际线的那一边的天然的心理倾向是英帝国在形成之初由形成到繁荣最重要的人性基础。
鲁宾逊的荒岛生活烘托出英帝国早期，战争和和平相互交织给人的心灵带来的影响。他独自面对自然，经历自然的无穷变化、体验自然带来的宗教启示。一种特别的必然性统治了他，这一必然性不再来自上帝，而是来自自然。对鲁宾逊的刻画突出了两个最重要的意象：象征着新世界的大海和对自然的重新理解。水手是该意象的承载者：水手去征服岛屿、发现新大陆。大海带来真正的自由。人对世界的征服和自我保存成为关键议题。
在透纳的作品中不断出现水手与商人的形象。他的画带有透明的空气感。空气的流动和光的折射与反射使无限的自然在画面中浑然一体。透纳的画有两处光源：微弱而温暖的人性光源与强烈但冷峻的自然光源。他找到了自然和人性的关联，看到了现实世界的温暖和困难的激荡，反映出对人性和世界的理解。彩虹在透纳的作品中反复出现。他画的彩虹来自天上的灵光而非现实。透纳所画的自然景观带有创世之后的上帝启示的意味，反映出人对自然的崇高与神秘的崇拜。英国人在新教影响下出现的自然观的转变在同时期詹姆斯·汤姆逊的诗歌中同样得到体现。
海洋既神秘又危险，死亡与海难相伴。透纳穷尽所有精力表现的主题之一就是海洋。他用心表达人和自然的关系和海洋的无穷变化。罗斯金所著的五卷本《现代画家》中专门有一卷写透纳，分析其描绘的海浪有多少种变化，又如何描绘了光的反射和水的流动。在这里，人对自然的征服以对自然的崇拜为前提。在死亡的威胁下，人首先要保存自我。这也是透纳的作品里渗透了强烈紧张感的原因，即便是远处的树木都受到风雪的摇撼而变得扭曲。
以洛克和休谟为例谈英国哲学家如何构建对自然、人性和社会的理解及其在透纳作品中的反映
渠敬东以英国经验主义代表人物洛克与休谟为例谈对自然、人性和社会理解的重新建构。洛克在《政府论》中指出上帝赐予了人外部世界的一切，使他可以借助这些东西生存下来并认识上帝和真理。不再依靠祈祷和忏悔，而是依靠上帝的启示和对自我的发现才能得到救赎。人运用内在的理性之光去认识自然，但自然却永远无法超越。人人皆分享永恒法和神性。这是上帝赐予人的内在理性之光，是人道德行动的本原。而休谟在《人性论》中指出人性不是生态上的归宿，只能经由某种社会生活来获得其归宿。正义的感觉必然来自教育和人类习俗。在休谟那里，自然法变成了自然史、风俗史。
考察透纳的作品，在《埃及的第五次大瘟疫》中并没有自然光，金字塔成为整个画面的光源。透纳描绘的不是纯粹的自然，而是将历史当作自然来理解。创作于1813年的作品《霜晨》反映出英国因特殊地理位置所具有的独特精神气质，既是对自然的表现，也是对人的生活风俗的表现。版画作品《钻研之书》同样展现出英国风俗，反映出画家内心温暖、自然和平静的状态。在透纳的作品中，自然内在的精神和神性的力量与人们的日常生活状态形成相互的映照。
休谟在《宗教的自然史》中指出最早的宗教观念并不是源于自然之工的沉思，而是源于激发了人类心灵发展的连绵不绝的希望和恐惧。宗教作为自然史，即人从最早对未知因素的困扰，从多神教（寓言和英雄崇拜）到一神教的发展。宗教必经经验的理性而产生道德效应。到了休谟，到了亚当·斯密，造就大英帝国时代的思想、文明和内在精神已相当成熟。整个世界的动植物、光、力，自然中的一切都被纳入博物学的分类体系。英国战舰永远带有达尔文这样的人，战舰开到哪里，物种分类就开展到哪里，对自然的理解也随之扩展。
对应地，罗斯金在《透纳和拉菲尔前派》一书中明确表明透纳的画几乎是英国的百科全书。透纳的《钻研之书》几乎包括了所有的农事场面：犁田、耙地、围篱笆等等、各种城镇生活图景、家庭生活场景、海景、不同的船、针对不同鱼类的捕鱼方法等。所有现实存在的英国风俗和所有生活的侧面几乎都在透纳的作品中得到了体现。
自然与历史、宗教和科学
1810年至1830年，透纳的创作从风景画过渡到历史风景画，历史浪漫主义随之出现。罗斯金说那些被遗忘、被破坏的教堂与生活建筑中充满了各种传奇的趣味、微妙的感情、以及过往时代的特点、气氛、习俗和历史的重要痕迹。《暴风雪：汉尼拔河他的军队翻越阿尔卑斯山，1812》是透纳在这一阶段最重要的作品，其中大的螺旋形反卷着将世界一分为二。而透纳高超的绘画技巧和对历史的理解都浓缩在《从梵蒂冈远眺罗马》之中。画中没有任何明确光源，却描绘出不同建筑的立面。透纳对几乎每个立面的反射光都进行了研究。光在不同的几何立面反射出来，相互穿插融合，产生灿烂和辉煌的效果。对光的研究和塑造反映出透纳对自然的崇拜和对自然科学的研究。再看《贝亚湾的阿波罗和女先知，1839》，整个画面呈现出透明的效果，这种效果来自透纳对光的微妙变化的掌握。
人们常将宗教和科学对立起来。在透纳的作品中，宗教和科学却是同一的。正是从这个意义上我们才能理解为何透纳要用科学的方式对光、云、气、海水等一切元素进行研究来呈现他的母题。如果对透纳版画作品的层次进行分析可以发现他的版画黑白分层多达六十层。然而，在作品中，透纳对自然的科学意义上的理解迅速转化成宗教性的表达。科学与宗教紧密相连，科学本身成为宗教。透纳努力把握天、云、光线的各种变化以反映上帝的意志。他的画中凝聚着对神学的解析，特别是对创世的解析。透纳与自然建立了一种泛神论的关联，拥有一种有关普遍的和宇宙的空间的直觉。普遍和无限的宇宙之力无限扩张。所有的平原、高地、海与云在他的画中都是自然的神力所致。透纳的画成为光与空气及其他元素风暴般地流动和汇聚之所。 自1830年以后，几乎所有透纳的绘画都没有描绘任何具体的东西。有人提出印象派与透纳作品有关，渠敬东对这一观点并不认同。由于印象派并未如透纳一般理解上帝和神学，印象派与透纳作品的相似仅仅流于表面，在精神气质上并不相同。
新教与罗马精神的合体：自然的自由世界与海洋帝国
对自然的理解包括对政治的理解。仅仅用大陆法系去理解民族国家之间的政治关系是不够的。英国继承了荷兰的传统，对政治的理解建立在由海洋而非陆地构成的自然法则之上。海洋的自然法原则突破了现代民族国家的范畴。国家之间的海洋区域变成缔造新的世界秩序的基础。海洋世界属于发现的范畴而非支配的范畴，航海和贸易的规则应循此而定。由于海洋的存在，不同民族和国家之间存在一个公共、开放且自由的空间。海洋成为政治自由的基础，大英帝国政治的科学基础随之成为博物学、海洋学、自然分类学和进化论的问题。英帝国的不断拓展实际上也是对自然的理解和对自由的理解的不断扩展。
对透纳最后作品的理解与大英帝国的逐渐衰败相关。渠敬东从弗雷泽的研究入手将问题的讨论进一步深入。弗雷泽在所著《金枝》的开篇提出“谁人不晓特纳的《金枝》绘画？”为何弗雷泽如此重视透纳这件作品？原因在于弗雷泽要重新解读《埃涅阿斯记》。弗雷泽在对巫术的研究中发现世界五大洲各民族的神话存在着与《旧约》相似的主题和情节。他认为人类的历史经历了巫术-宗教-历史三阶段，并利用透纳所绘《金枝》这幅画论及大英帝国的死亡与重生的意象。“金枝”既是帝国兴起的隐喻，也是帝国衰亡的征兆。由科学理性所支撑的帝国并不能永久存续，倒可能再次回到交感性的巫术起源。理性的自然王国重新返回神话的自然王国。现世的帝国消解在现代的神话结构中。人与物、人与世界、人与帝国的衰亡开始通过交感的方式成为人性的新的起点。“金枝”的启示在于死亡和重生的转换。
透纳生活的时代是工业和帝国霸权的时代。他见证了不列颠自身的转变，好与坏、力量与疾病、城市与乡村的复杂的关联以及生与死的关联等等。透纳的晚期作品充分表达出时代的变化。他的画呈现出漩涡般的混沌世界、洪水降临和象征灵异的怪兽。渠敬东并不认同透纳作品表现出速度的观点。他认为透纳作品中描绘的速度是超自然的，一切都被消解。风暴和水蒸气形成的混沌世界搅动天地，不再有任何光源出现，自然世界在其中旋转崩塌。透纳最后创作出带有象征性的“关于空无的绘画”，如《斯塔法的芬格尔洞穴》、《汉姆城堡的日出》等，展现出空无的孤寂与死寂、自然的黑暗与陌生感并将自然转化为超自然。透纳最后的作品象征着大英帝国的精神面临着结束和死亡。
主持人宋晓霞老师在讲座的最后对渠敬东教授的精彩演讲表示感谢。渠敬东教授特地带来透纳的版画作品与观众分享。活动在观众与渠敬东教授的问答与积极互动中结束。
胡晓岚/文
董慧萍、陈昱树/图
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I. General Provisions
(1) Party A is the portraiture rights holder in this agreement. Party A voluntarily licenses its portraiture rights to Party B for the purposes stipulated in this agreement and permitted by law.
(2) Party B (CAFA Art Museum) is a specialized, international modern art museum. CAFA Art Museum keeps pace with the times, and works to create an open, free, and academic space and atmosphere for positive interaction with groups, corporations, institutions, artists, and visitors. With CAFA’s academic research as a foundation, the museum plans multi-disciplinary exhibitions, conferences, and public education events with participants from around the world, providing a platform for exchange, learning, and exhibition for CAFA’s students and instructors, artists from around the world, and the general public. As a public institution, the primary purposes of CAFA Art Museum’s public education events are academic and beneficial to society.
(3) Party B will photograph all CAFA Public Education Department events for Party A.
II. Content, Forms of Use, and Geographical Scope of Use
(1) Content. The content of images taken by Party B bearing Party A’s likeness include: ① CAFA Art Museum ② CAFA campus ③ All events planned or executed by the CAFAM Public Education Department.
(2) Forms of Use. For use in CAFA’s publications, products with CDs, and promotional materials.
(3) Geographical Scope of Use
The applicable geographic scope is global.
The media in which the portraiture may be used encompasses any media that does not infringe upon Party A’s portraiture rights (e.g., magazines and the internet).
III. Term of Portraiture Rights Use
Use in perpetuity.
IV. Licensing Fees
The fees for images bearing Party A’s likeness will be undertaken by Party B.
After completion, Party B does not need to pay any fees to Party A for images bearing Party A’s likeness.
Additional Terms
(1) All matters not discussed in this agreement shall be resolved through friendly negotiation between both parties. Both parties may then sign a supplementary agreement, provided it does not violate any laws or regulations.
(2) This agreement comes into effect on the date that it is signed (sealed) and the relevant boxes are selected by Party A and Party B.
(3) This agreement exists in paper and electronic forms. The paper form is made in duplicate, with Party A and Party B each retaining one copy with the same legal efficacy.
Event participants implicitly accept and undertake all the obligations stated in this agreement. Those who do not consent will be seen as abandoning the right to participate in this event. Before participating in this event, please speak to your family members to obtain their consent and inform them of this disclaimer. After participants sign/check the required box, participants and their families will be seen as having read and agreed to these terms.
I have carefully read and agree to the above provisions.
CAFA Art Museum Publication Authorization Agreement
I fully agree to CAFA Art Museum (CAFAM) submitting to CAFA for publication the images, pictures, texts, writings, and event products (such as works created during participation in workshops) related to me from my participation in public events (including museum member events) organized by the CAFA Art Museum Public Education Department. CAFA can publish these materials by electronic, web, or other digital means, and I hereby agree to be included in the China Knowledge Resource Bank, the CAFA Database, the CAFA Art Museum Database, and related data, documentation, and filing institutions and platforms. Regarding their use in CAFA and dissemination on the internet, I agree to make use of these rights according to the stated Rules.
CAFA Art Museum Event Safety Disclaimer
Article I
This event was organized on the principles of fairness, impartiality, and voluntary participation and withdrawal. Participants undertake all risk and liability for themselves. All events have risks, and participants must be aware of the risks related to their chosen event.
Article II
Event participants must abide by the laws and regulations of the People’s Republic of China, as well as moral and ethical norms. All participants must demonstrate good character, respect for others, friendship, and a willingness to help others.
Article III
Event participants should be adults (people 18 years or older with full civil legal capacity). Underage persons must be accompanied by an adult.
Article IV
Event participants undertake all liability for their personal safety during the event, and event participants are encouraged to purchase personal safety insurance. Should an accident occur during an event, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for the accident, but both have the obligation to provide assistance. Event participants should actively organize and implement rescue efforts, but do not undertake any legal or economic liability for the accident itself. The museum does not undertake civil or joint liability for the personal safety of event participants.
Article V
During the event, event participants should respect the order of the museum event and ensure the safety of the museum site, the artworks in displays, exhibitions, and collections, and the derived products. If an event causes any degree of loss or damage to the museum site, space, artworks, or derived products due to an individual, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for losses. The event participant must negotiate and provide compensation according to the relevant legal statutes and museum rules. The museum may sue for legal and financial liability.
Article VI
Event participants will participate in the event under the guidance of museum staff and event leaders or instructors and must correctly use the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities provided for the event. If a participant causes injury or harm to him/herself or others while using the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, or causes the damage or destruction of the tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, the event participant must undertake all related liability and provide compensation for the financial losses. Persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for personal accidents.
CAFA Art Museum Portraiture Rights Licensing Agreement
According to The Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China, The General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and The Provisional Opinions of the Supreme People’s Court on Some Issues Related to the Full Implementation of the General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and upon friendly negotiation, Party A and Party B have arrived at the following agreement regarding the use of works bearing Party A’s image in order to clarify the rights and obligations of the portrait licenser (Party A) and the user (Party B):
I. General Provisions
(1) Party A is the portraiture rights holder in this agreement. Party A voluntarily licenses its portraiture rights to Party B for the purposes stipulated in this agreement and permitted by law.
(2) Party B (CAFA Art Museum) is a specialized, international modern art museum. CAFA Art Museum keeps pace with the times, and works to create an open, free, and academic space and atmosphere for positive interaction with groups, corporations, institutions, artists, and visitors. With CAFA’s academic research as a foundation, the museum plans multi-disciplinary exhibitions, conferences, and public education events with participants from around the world, providing a platform for exchange, learning, and exhibition for CAFA’s students and instructors, artists from around the world, and the general public. As a public institution, the primary purposes of CAFA Art Museum’s public education events are academic and beneficial to society.
(3) Party B will photograph all CAFA Public Education Department events for Party A.
II. Content, Forms of Use, and Geographical Scope of Use
(1) Content. The content of images taken by Party B bearing Party A’s likeness include: ① CAFA Art Museum ② CAFA campus ③ All events planned or executed by the CAFAM Public Education Department.
(2) Forms of Use. For use in CAFA’s publications, products with CDs, and promotional materials.
(3) Geographical Scope of Use
The applicable geographic scope is global.
The media in which the portraiture may be used encompasses any media that does not infringe upon Party A’s portraiture rights (e.g., magazines and the internet).
III. Term of Portraiture Rights Use
Use in perpetuity.
IV. Licensing Fees
The fees for images bearing Party A’s likeness will be undertaken by Party B.
After completion, Party B does not need to pay any fees to Party A for images bearing Party A’s likeness.
Additional Terms
(1) All matters not discussed in this agreement shall be resolved through friendly negotiation between both parties. Both parties may then sign a supplementary agreement, provided it does not violate any laws or regulations.
(2) This agreement comes into effect on the date that it is signed (sealed) and the relevant boxes are selected by Party A and Party B.
(3) This agreement exists in paper and electronic forms. The paper form is made in duplicate, with Party A and Party B each retaining one copy with the same legal efficacy.
Event participants implicitly accept and undertake all the obligations stated in this agreement. Those who do not consent will be seen as abandoning the right to participate in this event. Before participating in this event, please speak to your family members to obtain their consent and inform them of this disclaimer. After participants sign/check the required box, participants and their families will be seen as having read and agreed to these terms.
I have carefully read and agree to the above provisions.
