再现与“视觉的双重性”——贡布里希的错误与沃尔海姆的建树

英国著名哲学美学家和为“极少主义”命名的艺术理论家理查德·沃尔海姆,在其《艺术及其对象》这部名著中,批驳了艺术的“再现”或者“再现性属性”(representational properties)的缺失。对“再现”的反思,沃尔海姆将火力集中在“错觉论”(the illusion theory)与“相似论”(the resemblance theory)上面。其中,最具影响力的批驳,就是对于艺术史家贡布里希的“错觉说”的批驳。


一、反思贡布里希的“错觉说”

在贡布里希的艺术史模式里面,“进步观念”成为绝对的主导,甚至19世纪的绘画作为不断进步的行为还被当作人类真能进步的证据,这竟然是著名科学哲学家托马斯·库恩的看法。这种“艺术史的进步模式”源自于瓦萨里,按照贡布里希的看法就是“把风格史当作对自然外观的逐步征服”的模式,这显然是一种“欧洲中心主义”的艺术观念。

这也正符合一种进步的逻辑,“正是对概念性艺术的图示进行的连续的、系统的矫正,直至运用新的模拟技巧匹配现实取代制作为止”。[1]其实,以模仿为主的视觉艺术史,正是在逐步地寻找一种“匹配”,亦即画家通过掌握技巧而得的视觉经验与真实对象提供的那种视觉体验之间的“匹配”。于是,“真实的视觉经验”与“绘画的视觉经验”之间的距离缩小,就标志着绘画的进步,而且,通过肉眼区别两者的不同程度,就能度量到这种进步究竟达到了何种程度。这便是《艺术与错觉》(Art and Illusion)所论证的核心思想之一,这种观点曾在世界美学界和艺术界获得了普遍赞同,但是自从沃尔海姆提出他著名的批判之后,一部分学者开始对贡布里希的权威思想提出了置疑,从而形成了“保贡布里希”与“反贡布里希”的两派对峙,其冲突延续至今。

沃尔海姆在《艺术与心灵》文集当中,收录他对于贡布里希《艺术与错觉》专门批判的文章。[2]《艺术与错觉》的副标题就是《绘画再现的心理学研究》(A Study In the Psychology of Pictorical Representation),它既是艺术史专著,又是关注视知觉的理论专著。在沃尔海姆看来,贡布里希所提出的是一种更为极端的“知觉理论”,更准确地说,他所论证的是“知觉的图示-矫正理论”(the schema-correction theory of perception)。[3]然而,按照沃尔海姆的阐释,这里面可以区分出两种“节奏”:一种就是“再现过程”本有的节奏,一种则是“图示与矫正”的节奏。但是问题在于,这两种节奏究竟是如何“合拍”的呢?

由这个疑问出发,沃尔海姆对于“错觉说”提出了两点异议:其一,贡布里希的理论并不能支持“艺术的变化”(artistic change)的理论,其二,贡布里希的理论对于知觉的阐发也是不合实际的。[4]前者是关于艺术史方面的,后者是关于知觉方面的,这二者在《艺术与错觉》那里是相联的,相应地,沃尔海姆对二者的批判也是相联的。

从艺术史的角度看,沃尔海姆认为,在图示化图像的进步矫正过程当中,艺术中的“自然主义”(naturalism)是适合于“图示-矫正”模式的。贡布里希所提出的重要原则,就是“先制作后匹配”(making comes before matching)。按照这种原则,“每个艺术家首先都必须有所知道并且构成一个图式,然后才能加以调整,使它顺应描绘的需要”。[5]这就好像先在内心形成了既定的图式一样,后来才有意为可见事物的图像找到“匹配之物”,这就形成了一种“图式与矫正”不断运作的动态过程:形成图式-矫正图式-形成更新的图式-再矫正这更新的图式……按照日常的经验,“不熟悉之物”永远是以“熟悉之物”为起点的。依据贡布里希的解释,艺术的发展正是如此,它并不能成为对于世界的精确的“视觉记录”(visual in ventory),而只是“匹配图式”的运作过程。在这里面,一种科学意义上的“试错法”便被大量运用,如果错误就放弃这条途径,再度尝试,如果成功就继续应用之,从而试图在画面之类的上面检验艺术能达到的前所未有的效果如何。

然而,沃尔海姆认定,图示必定要去呈现某种客体,然后再去通过矫正图示去再与客体匹配,但是这种“逼近客体”是否可能?这种“逼近”的可能性是否存在?再现艺术所达到的逼真是否只是一种“偶然”?沃尔海姆的答案是明确的,这种对于客体的逼近恐怕是不现实的,因为对于“再现过程”而言并不存在“确定的参照物”去作为参照。[6]换言之,沃尔海姆否定了再现的客观忠实性,否定了贡布里希“错觉说”背后的科学进步预设,在他看来,再现绝非是与某种客体相匹配这种简单的模式。

即使“图示-矫正”模式是适合于视觉再现的,沃尔海姆也认定,在知觉理论方面贡布里希也犯了大错。他是从两个方面来加以探讨的。一方面他将依据“图示-矫正”模式的知觉分析与相应的知觉分析进行比对。这种分析是适合于再现的,那么就必须赋予“矫正”以明晰的意义,然而这就要诉诸于在“图示圈外”的某种外物,而这在“再现过程”当中又是不可能的,这便构成了矛盾。[7]另一方面,在“图示圈子”之内,具有的可能性就是从一种“知觉分析”转向另一种“知觉分析”,这便构成了一种内部循环。按照沃尔海姆的意见,这也是一种不可能的结果。这是由于,再现过程的那种“矫正”是需要外在的矫正,而知觉本身缺失“自我矫正的”。[8]照此而论,再现就成为了一种依附现象,而知觉则能使再现依附于其上,二者是异质的因而难以相融。


二、反对视觉再现的“相似论”

在对“错觉论”的批判之外,沃尔海姆对于将“再现”归结为“相似”的理论也提出了令人信服的批驳。在人们的通常的观念里面,对于某物是另一物再现的最基本的解释,最简单的事实就是:二者是“相似的”。沃尔海姆举出的例子就是拿破仑的图片或者绘画,如果说,一幅图片或者绘画是对拿破仑的再现的话,那么,唯一的理由就是它与拿破仑本人是相似的,所以,我们才将图像当中的人“视为”是拿破仑。[9]沃尔海姆就是从大家的普遍意见当中发现问题的,他从各个方面进行了论证。

首先,在沃尔海姆看来,“相似”本身就意味着某物与被再现的物的不同。当用“相似”来阐释再现的时候,往往众所周知是具有约略性的,因为“相似”在某种程度上是要具有“语境依赖性”(context-dependent),对于那些无视于再现的“惯例或者实践”的人们来说,恐怕难以看到某一图片或绘画与所再现对象之间的相似之处。[10]这已经为事实所证明,受到过相应训练的人总是比未经训练的人更容易把握绘画当中的再现,而在后者那里往往出现“视而不见”的现象。

其次,沃尔海姆还发现了这样的现象,我们常常说:某幅画里面所再现的某个人——“这个人像某某”,但却很少说“这外型像某某”。由此得见,当人们如此运用语言的时候,是认定“相似性”是属于内部的,因而不能以之去解释“再现的语言”(the language of representation)。[11]这也可以从另外的事实来证明,因为谈论相似的时候背后意指的是一种“对称”关系,但在真正使用的时候,我们只能说“这像拿破仑”,但不能反过来说,“拿破仑像这幅画”或者“拿破仑与这画很像”。

最后,沃尔海姆又关注到了容易被忽视的一个要素——“意图”。这种“意图”当然是归属于要完成再现的人的。这意味着,去画拿破仑的人必定具有要把拿破仑“画得像”的意图。既然他的意图就是要这画像拿破仑,只要它能“像”就足够了。[12]由此出发,沃尔海姆就此区分出来两个东西:一个我们如何看待绘画再现了什么,另一个则是我们要从绘画中再现什么。这是两种不同的活动,沃尔海姆暂时得出的结论是:“将某物当作某物所再现的,或者我们如何再现某物,都是文化决定的问题”。[13]

这种“意图分析”直接导向了沃尔海姆的另一个创建——“再现性的观看”(representational seeing),这是由于,“意图所寻求的就是再现性的观看”。[14]如此看来,在批判错觉与相似理论的基础上,以“意图”解析为环节,沃尔海姆最终走向了对于“视觉再现理论”的全面建构。


三、走向“再现性的观看”

“再现性的观看”是沃尔海姆美学最精彩的内核部分,它在《艺术及其对象》的初版时就被关注,在该书后来收录的论文当中从理论的角度又详尽加以阐释,在《作为一种艺术的绘画》当中结合艺术史的实践得以详尽阐发。

其中,“看进”(seeing-in)理论则是“再现性的观看”的内核,而“看进”理论可以被看作是沃尔海姆美学思想的核心。这是由于,“看进”理论解决的问题,就是某一幅画究竟如何成为“再现对象”?这个问题的解决,对于一件艺术品是如何成为对象的根本问题的最终解决,更是具有核心意义的。

“看进”是沃尔海姆发展维特根斯坦的视觉理论所提出的新概念,后者从“看见”当中区分出“看似”,而前者则从“看似”当中发展出“看进”。那么,“看进”究竟是什么意思呢?举个具体的例子,在达·芬奇在论绘画的著名笔记当中,他就曾劝告画家们要从受潮的墙壁、斑斓的石头上面去“发现”奇妙的景致、战斗的场景和剧烈运用的人体形象。[15]这就是“再现性的观看”的一个例子。这也是很普遍的日常经验,我们常常从自然奇峰、观赏石头当中“看出”一些具有形象性的东西。这种“从中看出”就是沃尔海姆所谓的“看进”现象。

如此说来,“看进”就表面的涵义而言就是指“从中见物”或者“图中见物”(seeing an object in a picture),它显然不同于“视图为物”(seeing a picture as an object)。这还是从维特根斯坦那里来的,因为“视图为物”就是“看似何物”,而“看进”所要面对的是这样的现象——我们为何在某一幅画当中既看到了画出痕迹的表面又看到了画中再现的东西?这实际上就是沃尔海姆所提出的视觉“双重性”(Twofoldness)的问题。

更具体的说,以“观画”为例,在拿破仑的肖像画当中,我们为何既看到了绘画在画面上的色彩、笔触、形状这些东西,又同时看出了画中的拿破仑?以“看图”为例,我们为何在观赏石(如雨花石)当中既看到了斑斓的形色组合,又看到了其中的人物形象(如日月星辰)?用中国的俗话来解释,“三分像七分想”,尤其是观山赏水的时候更是如此。在此最容易给出的是如下的解释:再现性视觉就是同“想象”相关的,在沃尔海姆之后,英国著名哲学家罗杰·斯克鲁顿(Roger Scruton)在《艺术与想象》(ArtAnd Imagination, 1974)此类的著作当中就持这种观点。[16]但是,在沃尔海姆那里,恰恰认为想象不能解释“看进”的现象,因为“看进”这种现象相对而言是自发出现的,很少能凭借想象力来确定自身。

我们还是按照历史线索来深描沃尔海姆的理论。在《艺术及其对象》的主体部分里,具体来说也就是从第11节到第14节那里,沃尔海姆在集中探讨了“再现”问题的时候,试图首先发展出“再现性的观看”这个概念。我们说过,这一表现上看是新的概念,其实就是从维特根斯坦曾论述过的“看似”那里发展出来的。但沃尔海姆的策略,是先将“再现”这个概念同“看似”联系起来,也就是同“再现性的观看”的概念紧密联系了起来,并认定前者要通过后者才能得到阐明。[17]换言之,沃尔海姆对待再现问题的基本理解是:“再现”应该通过一定种类的“看似”才能得到理解,但并不是完全要通过“看似”能加以理解的。这是第一个结论。但是,究竟如何在画中见物,沃尔海姆只是在这里打下了伏笔。

在后来收录的附录第五篇论文《看似、看进及绘画性再现》(Seeing-as, seeing-in, and pictorial representation)那里,沃尔海姆才继续发展了他的再现理论。他提出了第二个结论,那就是:适于“再现”的观看是“一种更广泛的知觉类别(perceptual genus),[18]进而又再度提及了“再现性的观看”的问题,这便直接引出了所谓视觉的“双重性”的问题。它所聚焦的问题是——观者在观看图画的时候,如何看到画面“以外”的讯息。针对于此,沃尔海姆认定了如下的事实:人们可以“同时”做两件事,一面是看到绘画表面被描绘的对象,一面是看到绘画表面上的被标记的表层(marked surface)。这一似乎不证自明的事实,足以呈现出了沃尔海姆所谓的“看进”的视觉经验的确是事实存在的,但沃尔海姆还是要从分析哲学的角度来加以证明。

在维特根斯坦的启发下,沃尔海姆修正了以往的相应观念,进而直接提出了“看进”的问题:“现在我认为,再现性的观看不应被理解为是包括了看似的,不能由此通过看似而得到最好的理解,而要将之看作另一种与‘看似’相类似的现象,我称之为‘看进’。从前我曾说过,再现性的观看就是把X(等同于媒介或者再现)当作Y(等同于对象或被再现的东西),现在我则要说,再现性的观看,就是在X之中见到Y,由于可变物的同等价值。”[19]这样,沃尔海姆就明确区分出两种现象:一个是“看似”,另一个则是“看进”。

那么,二者的区别何在呢?“从根本上说,看似就其本身而言,就是从一种呈现给各种感觉的对象的视觉兴趣抑或好奇形式当中出现的”,[20]相应地,沃尔海姆又是如此来界定“看进”的:

与之相反,“看进”并未对眼前对象使用“视觉好奇”。它是一种特殊类型的视觉经验的修养,在教化的环境中,这种经验把握到了特定的对象。由此,来自于“看进”所具有的各种各样的特征,特别是那些使“看进”与“看似”相区分的特征才得以产生。这些修养性的经验(cultivated experience),正如普遍的经验一样,可能拥有两种类型:它既能是某一特殊事物的经验,又能是关于事物状态的经验。甚至通过观看某一特殊事物而使得经验获得修养的时候,这也是正确的,换而言之,某一事物状态可以被视为某一特殊事物。这就是我曾配给“看进”的第一个特征,它要证明的就是,修养性的经验与支持它的视觉意识相分离的状态。反过来说,由此又引发出分配给“看进”的另外两个特征,亦即圈定的偶然性(the contingency of localization)和双重注意的可能性(the possibility of two fold attention)。要求圈定,就无异于否认任何分离,因此,它肯定就不存在了,而双重注意则是利用这些分离的方法。[21]

无论沃尔海姆的这种区分是多么复杂,我们都可以明确,“看进”的最基础的现象特征,就在于它使得“再现性的观看”不同于当下的感觉经验,也就是迥异于那种“直截了当的感知”(straight forward perception)。[22]这意味着,“看似何物”的那种经验是人类与动物所共同具有的,只是感知眼前事物的基本能力,而“从中见物”则由于看到了并不真实地存在于眼前的东西,进而是超越了“直截了当的感知”阶段的、具有“属人”性质的视觉经验。

更微观地看,沃尔海姆实际上是一步步地划分开了“看似”与“看进”,正因为“看进”突破了视觉“好奇阶段”,而在视觉经验的文化培育当中获得了更高的“修养性经验”,所以它便能使人感知到特殊事物及其相关的事态。这是最根本的,沃尔海姆在人与动物的视觉区分的意义上,也是从自然与文化的区隔的角度看到这种基本的差异。由此出发,“看似何物”的经验往往是按照圈定(localization)来定位的,[23]也就是从某一物指向类似的另一物(亦即将绘画中的某一部分圈定为某物),而“看进”则由于看出了画外的意味而不受圈定要求的限制,或者说是一种“非限制并同时发生的注意”(unlimited simultaneous attention)。[24]在此,“非限制”是指空间性的规定,而“同时发生”则是指时间性的规定,二者是结合在一起的。


四、“视觉的双重性”之新构

但更重要的,还是所谓“双重性的主题”(the two fold thesis)。[25]在沃尔海姆看来,艺术家们进行“再现”的快慰,就在于把握眼前的事物特征与从中看出的特征之间的日趋复杂的对应和类似的关系。[26]这是同艺术史的发展紧密相关的,随着“图像再现性”历史的展开,对于绘画的“双重性”的要求也越来越高。然而,贡布里希这样的致力于再现研究的艺术史家,仍然执着于“看见画布”(seeing canvas)与“看见自然”(seeing nature)的两分。[27]这种传统的并被广为接受的看法,就是将对于绘画的“再现性的观看”等同于对于“鸭-兔图”(著名心理图示)的观看,或者看到鸭子,或者看到兔子,而没有第三种选择。然而,依据沃尔海姆所见,事实正好相反。

“看似”与“看进”的二分,还有视觉的“双重性”特质,都会被用以解释与“再现性经验”(representational experience)相关的特殊现象,而不仅仅囿于观看绘画的现象:人们在观看的是表面上被标记了的绘画里面的对象,同时亦看到那些标记。这被沃尔海姆当作原初性的人类活动,当人们观看云朵的表面的时候,在那些云朵里面看到了诸如城堡或者动物之类的时候,他们就是在练习这种能力。再如,当人们在布满污点的墙上,看出一幅风景画或者一幅面孔的时候,其实也是在践行这种人类的基本能力。同理可证,人们在画面里面可以看到画面之外的形象。视觉的“双重性”正是要道明这个看似简单的事实。

所以,沃尔海姆在他的《观者所见》(What the Spectator Sees)里面说:“为了看到图画中超出图画的东西,我们必须事先知道些什么(know something)。”[28]这意味着,当人们获得“看进”的经验的时候,必须凭借“再现”过程当中形成的某些约定俗成的“东西”。只有将这些“东西”(诸如以往的经验之类)带了进来,才能实现“看进”。

总之,这种视觉的“双重性”,首先说明了依据“看进”而来的“再现性的观看”这种特定的现象。这也正是《艺术及其对象》及其附录所要证明的。其次,这种“双重性”还可以解释某些特殊的再现现象,比如在观者的位置变化的情况下,被描绘的主体之所以具有感觉的稳定性的问题。最终可以肯定,视觉的“双重性”说明了人们对绘画的“艺术性质”(artistry)的欣赏和判断方式的问题。观者只能通过“同时”地注意被描绘对象和被标记的表层的途径,来解释对于艺术的欣赏。

然而,必须看到,对一幅绘画的感觉是一种更为复杂的行为。在一幅绘画那里,人们所见的,正是画家有意为之的。也就是说,画家布置经营绘画的表面,是为了观者们能够把握他置于画中的东西。这也是《艺术及其对象》为何将“意图”与“再现性的观看”初步联接起来的原因,但是那尚未得到充分阐明。这就涉及到沃尔海姆另一部代表作《作为一种艺术的绘画》的主要论题。在这部更新的著作里面,沃尔海姆又为“再现性的观看”理论增添了新的内涵:

首先需要肯定的是,绘画中的经验“必须与艺术家的意图(intention)相协调,正如我所强调的,那里包括艺术家的欲望、思想、信仰、经验和情感,这都依托于艺术家所要描绘的动机......第二,所需要的经验必须是通过观看画面来实现的:也就是通过艺术家所做的方式来实现的。”[29]显然,沃尔海姆这本书的观点,代表了一种“观画”的立场,近似于一种“创作者中心主义”的立场,或者说,尽管沃尔海姆也关注接受者的解析,但是他却更侧重于创作者的方面。换言之,依据艺术家的意图来“读”作品是沃尔海姆的观点,这是第一种立场,常常通过人们在作品中看到的而将之展现出来:发现“意图”就是艺术史解释的钥匙,这是《艺术及其对象》的伏笔在新著当中的延伸。


五、绘画如何成为一门视觉艺术?

实际上,在《作为一种艺术的绘画》这部巨著里面,沃尔海姆关注的仍是最重要的美学问题:绘画是如何被描绘出来的?绘画如何表现出情感?或者说,该著作存在两个相互关联的内核:一方面是物质材料是如何转化为“艺术媒介”的,另一方面则是关于“意义”的生产的。沃尔海姆正是从心理分析的角度来看待图像意义的,这两方面恰恰又是相互阐释的。从哲学的角度看,沃尔海姆是要从“艺术家和观众的分享当中预设一种普遍的人类本质”(auniversal human nature),这便同他的“心灵哲学”是内在相通的。

由此,沃尔海姆拓展了他的美学空间,他提出了理解绘画的三元素:其一是“看进”,其二是“表现的感觉”(expressive perception),其三则是感受“视觉愉悦”(visual delight)的能力。[30]这不仅仅是艺术家的三种感觉能力,观者也要依赖于这些基本能力。

沃尔海姆一面在艺术史当中继续阐发以“看进”为主的理论(对于其进行了更为深入和系统的考量),一面利用这些理论来对艺术史进行了独特的阐发,在当代艺术史研究里面也独树一帜。其实,从视觉“双重性”的角度来阐发艺术史,这种独特观念而今仍在不断获得广泛的赞誉,比如,当代学者约翰·迪尔华斯(John Dilworth)在《为三种描绘观点辩护》里面就认为,沃尔海姆的视觉“双重性”理论无疑是正确的,这会被新近发展出来的绘画呈现的“解释性”理论所证明。这种理论认为,一幅画是通过其物理承载物所呈现(presented)出来的,因而一幅画本身就是其承载物的一部分的呈现内容(presentational contents),反过来,这种解释的方式可以呈现该画的主题(subject matter)。[31]如此等等,诸如此类的意见和观点,已经大量在美学和艺术史的著述当中得以出现。

在《作为一种艺术的绘画》的第二章《观者所见》的B部分,作者又开始集中论述了“看进”的问题。在这里,沃尔海姆进一步地确定,“看进”是“先在于再现的(precedes representation):这既是逻辑性地在先,也是历史性地在先。”[32]如果说,在《艺术及其对象》那里,沃尔海姆对这种“在先性”还并不十分肯定的话,那么,到了晚年,沃尔海姆显然对自己结论更加自信了,并从历史与逻辑相统一的原则肯定了这一根本观点。当然,沃尔海姆更多是借助于从文艺复兴到现代主义艺术品来为他的理论做支撑的,然而,却由于这种独特的“观看”艺术史的方法,而看到了传统艺术史“所未见”的东西。甚至他认为,“再现”与“看进”的关联早在古希腊和文艺复兴的再现理论那里,就已经存在了。[33]由此可见,沃尔海姆在拓展其视觉理论的适用性,无论是在理论疆域中还是在艺术史的范围上,都有积极的拓展。

实际上,客观地看,“看进”更多地是同“再现的内容”(Representational content)相联的。依照沃尔海姆的建议,他其实提出的是“历史知识”对于“观看图像”所获得的理解的必要性,这就可以解释了,为何不同的观看会因为“历史知识”的差异而会如此不同。这种历史性的知识,对于绘画的观看而言无疑是“必要的讯息”。而且,这种讯息来自两个方面,一方面在创作者那里,是来自于绘画创作的时代背景和画家本人的个人脉络;另一方面则来自观画者的时代背景和观画者本人的个人脉络。当然,沃尔海姆自己还强调的是对艺术的心理分析的“意图”,他对艺术品的理解也预设了心理分析的观念,这与他关注“意图”的价值也是相关联的。

总而言之,沃尔海姆是从“看似”与“看进”的区分出发,“来观看作为他物的某物的”(to see something as something else),亦即视觉“双重性”的。的确,这些观点,赢得了大量从事艺术史和哲学美学研究的学者们的共鸣。他们继续依据沃尔海姆的“看进”来阐发对图像再现的解释问题,来解释艺术家表现的问题,来阐释观者观看的问题。然而,这种“看进”的理论又遭到了一些论者的质疑,马尔科姆·巴德(MalcolmBudd)则直接声称“双重性”观点并不能说明图像观看里面的特殊现象,[34]当代分析美学家杰罗尔德·列文森(Jerrold Levinson)也在置疑“双重性”是否是“再现性观看”的必要条件。[35]沃尔海姆对于两种感知模式之间所做的区分是否准确尚未有定论,还有戴维斯从更为实证的角度认为,“虽然对于再现性绘画的欣赏很多是双重性的,但是,说这种欣赏都是双重性的却是有疑问的(……有些艺术家通过做到逼真性而展示自己的卓越技巧。因为这种逼真性,观看者在看画的时候并不会去注意画的表面。沃尔海姆认为技艺高超的错觉画根本就不是再现,但这种挽救自己理论的做法的代价是,使得绘画再现的概念变得狭隘得让人不能接受)。最后,即使沃尔海姆的说法是正确的,它也还没有满足上面提到的那种要求:即,要能够解释我们对于绘画主题与绘画表面的双重意识之间的联系。”[36]但无论怎样说,这种独特的视觉理论,已积淀在了美学史和艺术史研究的长河里面,并不断地熠熠发光。


作者 | 刘悦笛(中国社会科学院哲学所研究员 )

原文发表于《美术评论与理论》2019年05期


注释:

1 E.H.贡布里希:《艺术与错觉》,林夕、李本正、范景中译,浙江摄影出版社,1987年,第171页。

2 Richard Wollheim, “Reflections on Art and Illusion”, in Richard Wollheim, On Art and the Mind: Essays and Lectures , Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1974. 

3 Richard Wollheim, On Art and the Mind , Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press,1974, p.283. 

4 Richard Wollheim, On Art and the Mind , p.283. 

5 E.H.贡布里希:《艺术与错觉——图画再现的心理学研究》,第138页。 

6 Richard Wollheim, On Art and the Mind, p.283. 

7 Ibid., p.284.
8 Ibid., p.284.

9 理查德·沃尔海姆:《艺术及其对象》,刘悦笛译,北京大学出版社,2012年,第 18页。

10、11、12 同上,第 19页。

13 、14 理查德·沃尔海姆:《艺术及其对象》,第 21页。

15 同上,第 17页。

16 Roger Scruton, Art and Imagination: A Study in the Philosophy of Mind, London: Methuen, 1974.
17 理查德·沃尔海姆:《艺术及其对象》,第 17-18页。

18 同上,第 173页。

19 同上,第 176页。

20 同上,第 187页。

21 同上,第 188页。

22 同上,第 182页。

23 同上,第 178页。

24 同上,第179页。 

25 同上,第 180页。

26 同上,第 184页。

27 同上,第 180页。

28 Richard Wollheim, “What the Spectator Sees”, in Visual Theory: Painting and Interpretation , Norman Bryson, Michael Ann Holly, and Keith Moxey (eds.), New York: HarperCollins, 1991, pp.140. 

29 Richard Wollheim, Painting as an Art , New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1987, p.44.
30 Ibid., p.45. 

31 John Dilworth, “Three Depictive Views Defend”, in The British Journal of Aesthetics , Vol.42, No.3, 2002, pp. 259- 278. 

32 Richard Wollheim, Painting as an Art,p.47.
33 Ibid., p.54.
34 Malcolm Budd, “On Looking at a Picture”, in Jim Hopkins & Anthony Savile eds., Psychoanalysis, Mind and Art: Perspectives on Richard Wollheim , Oxford: Blackwell, 1992. 

35 Jerrold Levinson, “Wollheim on Pictorial Representation”, in The Journal of Aesthetics and art Criticism , Vol.56, No.3, (Summer, 1998). pp.227-233.

36 斯蒂芬·戴维斯:《艺术哲学》,王燕飞译,上海人民美术出版社,2008年,第167页。

Child Public Education Reservation Form

I agree to the Group Visit Agreement and Statement Please agree to the Group Visit Agreement.
Submit

Adult Public Education Event Reservation Form

I agree to the Group Visit Agreement and Statement Please agree to the Group Visit Agreement.
Sumbit

Group Public Education Event Reservation Form

I agree to the Group Visit Agreement and Statement Please agree to the Group Visit Agreement.
Submit

Group Visit Agreement
and Statement

CAFA Art Museum Publication Authorization Agreement

I fully agree to CAFA Art Museum (CAFAM) submitting to CAFA for publication the images, pictures, texts, writings, and event products (such as works created during participation in workshops) related to me from my participation in public events (including museum member events) organized by the CAFA Art Museum Public Education Department. CAFA can publish these materials by electronic, web, or other digital means, and I hereby agree to be included in the China Knowledge Resource Bank, the CAFA Database, the CAFA Art Museum Database, and related data, documentation, and filing institutions and platforms. Regarding their use in CAFA and dissemination on the internet, I agree to make use of these rights according to the stated Rules.

CAFA Art Museum Event Safety Disclaimer

Article I

This event was organized on the principles of fairness, impartiality, and voluntary participation and withdrawal. Participants undertake all risk and liability for themselves. All events have risks, and participants must be aware of the risks related to their chosen event.

Article II

Event participants must abide by the laws and regulations of the People’s Republic of China, as well as moral and ethical norms. All participants must demonstrate good character, respect for others, friendship, and a willingness to help others.

Article III

Event participants should be adults (people 18 years or older with full civil legal capacity). Underage persons must be accompanied by an adult.

Article IV

Event participants undertake all liability for their personal safety during the event, and event participants are encouraged to purchase personal safety insurance. Should an accident occur during an event, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for the accident, but both have the obligation to provide assistance. Event participants should actively organize and implement rescue efforts, but do not undertake any legal or economic liability for the accident itself. The museum does not undertake civil or joint liability for the personal safety of event participants.

Article V

During the event, event participants should respect the order of the museum event and ensure the safety of the museum site, the artworks in displays, exhibitions, and collections, and the derived products. If an event causes any degree of loss or damage to the museum site, space, artworks, or derived products due to an individual, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for losses. The event participant must negotiate and provide compensation according to the relevant legal statutes and museum rules. The museum may sue for legal and financial liability.

Article VI

Event participants will participate in the event under the guidance of museum staff and event leaders or instructors and must correctly use the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities provided for the event. If a participant causes injury or harm to him/herself or others while using the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, or causes the damage or destruction of the tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, the event participant must undertake all related liability and provide compensation for the financial losses. Persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for personal accidents.

CAFA Art Museum Portraiture Rights Licensing Agreement

According to The Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China, The General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and The Provisional Opinions of the Supreme People’s Court on Some Issues Related to the Full Implementation of the General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and upon friendly negotiation, Party A and Party B have arrived at the following agreement regarding the use of works bearing Party A’s image in order to clarify the rights and obligations of the portrait licenser (Party A) and the user (Party B):

I. General Provisions

(1) Party A is the portraiture rights holder in this agreement. Party A voluntarily licenses its portraiture rights to Party B for the purposes stipulated in this agreement and permitted by law.

(2) Party B (CAFA Art Museum) is a specialized, international modern art museum. CAFA Art Museum keeps pace with the times, and works to create an open, free, and academic space and atmosphere for positive interaction with groups, corporations, institutions, artists, and visitors. With CAFA’s academic research as a foundation, the museum plans multi-disciplinary exhibitions, conferences, and public education events with participants from around the world, providing a platform for exchange, learning, and exhibition for CAFA’s students and instructors, artists from around the world, and the general public. As a public institution, the primary purposes of CAFA Art Museum’s public education events are academic and beneficial to society.

(3) Party B will photograph all CAFA Public Education Department events for Party A.

II. Content, Forms of Use, and Geographical Scope of Use

(1) Content. The content of images taken by Party B bearing Party A’s likeness include: ① CAFA Art Museum ② CAFA campus ③ All events planned or executed by the CAFAM Public Education Department.

(2) Forms of Use. For use in CAFA’s publications, products with CDs, and promotional materials.

(3) Geographical Scope of Use

The applicable geographic scope is global.

The media in which the portraiture may be used encompasses any media that does not infringe upon Party A’s portraiture rights (e.g., magazines and the internet).

III. Term of Portraiture Rights Use

Use in perpetuity.

IV. Licensing Fees

The fees for images bearing Party A’s likeness will be undertaken by Party B.

After completion, Party B does not need to pay any fees to Party A for images bearing Party A’s likeness.

Additional Terms

(1) All matters not discussed in this agreement shall be resolved through friendly negotiation between both parties. Both parties may then sign a supplementary agreement, provided it does not violate any laws or regulations.

(2) This agreement comes into effect on the date that it is signed (sealed) and the relevant boxes are selected by Party A and Party B.

(3) This agreement exists in paper and electronic forms. The paper form is made in duplicate, with Party A and Party B each retaining one copy with the same legal efficacy.

Event participants implicitly accept and undertake all the obligations stated in this agreement. Those who do not consent will be seen as abandoning the right to participate in this event. Before participating in this event, please speak to your family members to obtain their consent and inform them of this disclaimer. After participants sign/check the required box, participants and their families will be seen as having read and agreed to these terms.

I have carefully read and agree to the above provisions.

Group Visit Agreement
and Statement

CAFA Art Museum Publication Authorization Agreement

I fully agree to CAFA Art Museum (CAFAM) submitting to CAFA for publication the images, pictures, texts, writings, and event products (such as works created during participation in workshops) related to me from my participation in public events (including museum member events) organized by the CAFA Art Museum Public Education Department. CAFA can publish these materials by electronic, web, or other digital means, and I hereby agree to be included in the China Knowledge Resource Bank, the CAFA Database, the CAFA Art Museum Database, and related data, documentation, and filing institutions and platforms. Regarding their use in CAFA and dissemination on the internet, I agree to make use of these rights according to the stated Rules.

CAFA Art Museum Event Safety Disclaimer

Article I

This event was organized on the principles of fairness, impartiality, and voluntary participation and withdrawal. Participants undertake all risk and liability for themselves. All events have risks, and participants must be aware of the risks related to their chosen event.

Article II

Event participants must abide by the laws and regulations of the People’s Republic of China, as well as moral and ethical norms. All participants must demonstrate good character, respect for others, friendship, and a willingness to help others.

Article III

Event participants should be adults (people 18 years or older with full civil legal capacity). Underage persons must be accompanied by an adult.

Article IV

Event participants undertake all liability for their personal safety during the event, and event participants are encouraged to purchase personal safety insurance. Should an accident occur during an event, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for the accident, but both have the obligation to provide assistance. Event participants should actively organize and implement rescue efforts, but do not undertake any legal or economic liability for the accident itself. The museum does not undertake civil or joint liability for the personal safety of event participants.

Article V

During the event, event participants should respect the order of the museum event and ensure the safety of the museum site, the artworks in displays, exhibitions, and collections, and the derived products. If an event causes any degree of loss or damage to the museum site, space, artworks, or derived products due to an individual, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for losses. The event participant must negotiate and provide compensation according to the relevant legal statutes and museum rules. The museum may sue for legal and financial liability.

Article VI

Event participants will participate in the event under the guidance of museum staff and event leaders or instructors and must correctly use the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities provided for the event. If a participant causes injury or harm to him/herself or others while using the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, or causes the damage or destruction of the tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, the event participant must undertake all related liability and provide compensation for the financial losses. Persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for personal accidents.

CAFA Art Museum Portraiture Rights Licensing Agreement

According to The Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China, The General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and The Provisional Opinions of the Supreme People’s Court on Some Issues Related to the Full Implementation of the General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and upon friendly negotiation, Party A and Party B have arrived at the following agreement regarding the use of works bearing Party A’s image in order to clarify the rights and obligations of the portrait licenser (Party A) and the user (Party B):

I. General Provisions

(1) Party A is the portraiture rights holder in this agreement. Party A voluntarily licenses its portraiture rights to Party B for the purposes stipulated in this agreement and permitted by law.

(2) Party B (CAFA Art Museum) is a specialized, international modern art museum. CAFA Art Museum keeps pace with the times, and works to create an open, free, and academic space and atmosphere for positive interaction with groups, corporations, institutions, artists, and visitors. With CAFA’s academic research as a foundation, the museum plans multi-disciplinary exhibitions, conferences, and public education events with participants from around the world, providing a platform for exchange, learning, and exhibition for CAFA’s students and instructors, artists from around the world, and the general public. As a public institution, the primary purposes of CAFA Art Museum’s public education events are academic and beneficial to society.

(3) Party B will photograph all CAFA Public Education Department events for Party A.

II. Content, Forms of Use, and Geographical Scope of Use

(1) Content. The content of images taken by Party B bearing Party A’s likeness include: ① CAFA Art Museum ② CAFA campus ③ All events planned or executed by the CAFAM Public Education Department.

(2) Forms of Use. For use in CAFA’s publications, products with CDs, and promotional materials.

(3) Geographical Scope of Use

The applicable geographic scope is global.

The media in which the portraiture may be used encompasses any media that does not infringe upon Party A’s portraiture rights (e.g., magazines and the internet).

III. Term of Portraiture Rights Use

Use in perpetuity.

IV. Licensing Fees

The fees for images bearing Party A’s likeness will be undertaken by Party B.

After completion, Party B does not need to pay any fees to Party A for images bearing Party A’s likeness.

Additional Terms

(1) All matters not discussed in this agreement shall be resolved through friendly negotiation between both parties. Both parties may then sign a supplementary agreement, provided it does not violate any laws or regulations.

(2) This agreement comes into effect on the date that it is signed (sealed) and the relevant boxes are selected by Party A and Party B.

(3) This agreement exists in paper and electronic forms. The paper form is made in duplicate, with Party A and Party B each retaining one copy with the same legal efficacy.

Event participants implicitly accept and undertake all the obligations stated in this agreement. Those who do not consent will be seen as abandoning the right to participate in this event. Before participating in this event, please speak to your family members to obtain their consent and inform them of this disclaimer. After participants sign/check the required box, participants and their families will be seen as having read and agreed to these terms.

I have carefully read and agree to the above provisions.

Group Visit Agreement
and Statement

CAFA Art Museum Publication Authorization Agreement

I fully agree to CAFA Art Museum (CAFAM) submitting to CAFA for publication the images, pictures, texts, writings, and event products (such as works created during participation in workshops) related to me from my participation in public events (including museum member events) organized by the CAFA Art Museum Public Education Department. CAFA can publish these materials by electronic, web, or other digital means, and I hereby agree to be included in the China Knowledge Resource Bank, the CAFA Database, the CAFA Art Museum Database, and related data, documentation, and filing institutions and platforms. Regarding their use in CAFA and dissemination on the internet, I agree to make use of these rights according to the stated Rules.

CAFA Art Museum Event Safety Disclaimer

Article I

This event was organized on the principles of fairness, impartiality, and voluntary participation and withdrawal. Participants undertake all risk and liability for themselves. All events have risks, and participants must be aware of the risks related to their chosen event.

Article II

Event participants must abide by the laws and regulations of the People’s Republic of China, as well as moral and ethical norms. All participants must demonstrate good character, respect for others, friendship, and a willingness to help others.

Article III

Event participants should be adults (people 18 years or older with full civil legal capacity). Underage persons must be accompanied by an adult.

Article IV

Event participants undertake all liability for their personal safety during the event, and event participants are encouraged to purchase personal safety insurance. Should an accident occur during an event, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for the accident, but both have the obligation to provide assistance. Event participants should actively organize and implement rescue efforts, but do not undertake any legal or economic liability for the accident itself. The museum does not undertake civil or joint liability for the personal safety of event participants.

Article V

During the event, event participants should respect the order of the museum event and ensure the safety of the museum site, the artworks in displays, exhibitions, and collections, and the derived products. If an event causes any degree of loss or damage to the museum site, space, artworks, or derived products due to an individual, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for losses. The event participant must negotiate and provide compensation according to the relevant legal statutes and museum rules. The museum may sue for legal and financial liability.

Article VI

Event participants will participate in the event under the guidance of museum staff and event leaders or instructors and must correctly use the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities provided for the event. If a participant causes injury or harm to him/herself or others while using the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, or causes the damage or destruction of the tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, the event participant must undertake all related liability and provide compensation for the financial losses. Persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for personal accidents.

CAFA Art Museum Portraiture Rights Licensing Agreement

According to The Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China, The General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and The Provisional Opinions of the Supreme People’s Court on Some Issues Related to the Full Implementation of the General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and upon friendly negotiation, Party A and Party B have arrived at the following agreement regarding the use of works bearing Party A’s image in order to clarify the rights and obligations of the portrait licenser (Party A) and the user (Party B):

I. General Provisions

(1) Party A is the portraiture rights holder in this agreement. Party A voluntarily licenses its portraiture rights to Party B for the purposes stipulated in this agreement and permitted by law.

(2) Party B (CAFA Art Museum) is a specialized, international modern art museum. CAFA Art Museum keeps pace with the times, and works to create an open, free, and academic space and atmosphere for positive interaction with groups, corporations, institutions, artists, and visitors. With CAFA’s academic research as a foundation, the museum plans multi-disciplinary exhibitions, conferences, and public education events with participants from around the world, providing a platform for exchange, learning, and exhibition for CAFA’s students and instructors, artists from around the world, and the general public. As a public institution, the primary purposes of CAFA Art Museum’s public education events are academic and beneficial to society.

(3) Party B will photograph all CAFA Public Education Department events for Party A.

II. Content, Forms of Use, and Geographical Scope of Use

(1) Content. The content of images taken by Party B bearing Party A’s likeness include: ① CAFA Art Museum ② CAFA campus ③ All events planned or executed by the CAFAM Public Education Department.

(2) Forms of Use. For use in CAFA’s publications, products with CDs, and promotional materials.

(3) Geographical Scope of Use

The applicable geographic scope is global.

The media in which the portraiture may be used encompasses any media that does not infringe upon Party A’s portraiture rights (e.g., magazines and the internet).

III. Term of Portraiture Rights Use

Use in perpetuity.

IV. Licensing Fees

The fees for images bearing Party A’s likeness will be undertaken by Party B.

After completion, Party B does not need to pay any fees to Party A for images bearing Party A’s likeness.

Additional Terms

(1) All matters not discussed in this agreement shall be resolved through friendly negotiation between both parties. Both parties may then sign a supplementary agreement, provided it does not violate any laws or regulations.

(2) This agreement comes into effect on the date that it is signed (sealed) and the relevant boxes are selected by Party A and Party B.

(3) This agreement exists in paper and electronic forms. The paper form is made in duplicate, with Party A and Party B each retaining one copy with the same legal efficacy.

Event participants implicitly accept and undertake all the obligations stated in this agreement. Those who do not consent will be seen as abandoning the right to participate in this event. Before participating in this event, please speak to your family members to obtain their consent and inform them of this disclaimer. After participants sign/check the required box, participants and their families will be seen as having read and agreed to these terms.

I have carefully read and agree to the above provisions.

Event Booking Form

Name:
Gender
Phone:
Valid Certificate: Identity Card
ID Number:
Email:

Reminder:

Hello! Thank you for participating in our public education event and we are looking forward to seeing you! If you cannot attend the event on time, please send a text message to 13261936837 (Liang) to cancel the booking. Please be aware that your eligibility for using the quick booking may be affected If you cancel the booking more than three times. Thank you for your understanding!
Quick loginAccount login
  • Mobile phone number will be your login ID
  •  
Use Artron membership to login