在《对纪实摄影的再思考》一书中，米歇尔·博格蕊（Michelle Bor-gre）提出了这样的疑问：纪实摄影到底有多可靠，它值得我们相信吗？它和真相之间到底有什么样的关系？
1855年，英国摄影师罗杰·芬顿在拍摄《死亡幽谷》时，为了达到更好的效果，他在现场移动了弹壳，给人展现了一个更富有戏剧感的画面。同样是反映战争题材的作品，历史学家们相信：意大利摄影师费利斯·比托（Felice Beato）在1858年拍摄的《大屠杀后苏孔德拉宫的内部》时，他有可能把一些士兵的尸骨进行了摆布。至少可以确认一点：他重新调整了这些骨头的位置，从而让画面更具舞台效果，更加引人入胜。1865年，因拍摄《战争摄影写真集》而闻名的摄影师亚历山大·加德纳（Alexander Gard-ner），在拍摄《叛军神枪手的归宿》这一作品时，专门把士兵的尸体移动了最少12米，并让其靠在墙上。为了加强效果，他还把自己带的枪放进了画面里。
1936年，多萝西娅·兰格（Dorothea Lange）拍摄了那张让她声名鹊起的作品《移民母亲》，也是美国经济大萧条时期的标志性摄影作品，很多时候被人们视为有史以来最伟大的作品之一。这是兰格当年的描述：弗洛伦斯·汤普森（Florence Owens Thompson），32岁，无家可归，却有7个孩子要养。在美国大萧条时期的那段艰难岁月中，经济危机和旱灾使她的生活困苦不堪。她是一名农村妇女，靠捡豌豆供养家庭，土地歉收，她也就无所可捡，只能带着孩子外出寻找工作……这位被贫困和劳顿折磨的母亲，憔悴不堪。她卖掉了车子的轮胎去买食物，走投无路时，只能靠附近冻坏的蔬菜和死掉的动物维持生活。
米歇尔·博格蕊在书中对这组作品的拍摄方式是否道德也提出了质疑。兰格在拍摄这张照片时，首先也进行了一场安排和摆布。当时，拍摄对象汤普森女士有7个孩子，如果把孩子全部都带上，她认为照片不能引发美国精英阶层的同情。于是，她在拍摄汤普森时，选择了其中的4个孩子。为了达到更好的效果，她让两个女孩儿背对着镜头并让她们趴在母亲肩膀上，进行摆拍，以此产生忧郁而伤感的氛围。她之所以会进行这样的摆拍，可能很大程度上是受西方宗教油画的影响。
除了摆拍，兰格对照片还进行了修改。由于画面右侧汤普森女士左手的大拇指太明显，摄影师便在暗房里将其移除，但食指却被保留了下来。此外，在图片说明中，兰格为了强调被摄对象“圣母”的完美形象，有意忽略掉她此前丈夫死掉，而自己正和另一位有着两个孩子的男人同居这一信息。这样的信息，同样不利于精英阶层对拍摄对象产生同情。圣母是纯洁、善良而值得同情的，如果一个寡妇和另一个男人同居而没有结婚，可能会影响人们对她的想象和同情。
2018年，英国伦敦著名的巴比肯艺术中心举办了一场大型的展览——“多萝西娅·兰格：观看的政治”。展览对她的评价为：“她是20世纪最有影响力的女性，她以相机为工具，展现了许多社会不公平现象。也正因为如此，她成了纪实摄影的标杆性人物。”那场展览，我看了很久。那幅《移民母亲》的原片和修改后的照片，被印放成同等大小挂在了墙上。也许，主办方是为了把图片呈现给读者，让他们去思考和评判摄影师的道德问题。为了美感，为了使照片能达到更多的煽动性，兰格对画面中的人物进行挑选，并设计画面和进行摆拍，甚至对照片进行了修改。即使是图片说明，她也是为了达到完美而故意忽略一些重要信息，对读者产生一定误导。
历史上摆拍的人中，兰格不是第一个，也不是最后一个。同样被视为纪实摄影的标志性人物的尤金·史密斯，拍摄作品时也多次进行过导演和摆拍。在他的摄影专题《水俣病》里，他清楚地知道在这组选题里需要有一张标志性的照片。所以，他现场导演并摆拍了那张《入浴的智子》。这张照片，成了现代社会的《圣母怜子图》，与文艺复兴时期的巨匠米开朗基罗的那幅雕塑《圣殇像》有着很大的相似性。尤金·史密斯后来也对自己的摆拍行为给出了辩解：“我并不反对摆拍，我不是这条规则的制定者，为什么我要遵守它？！”
除了摆拍，我们脑海里的许多经典照片，因为时间久远而忽略了图说内容，也可能会误导我们。在《纪实摄影的再思考》这本书里，作者米歇尔还给我们列出了另外的例子。
1972年，摄影师黄功吾拍摄了《战火中的女孩儿》，画面中小女孩赤裸着身体，哭着在路上奔跑，后面是几个美军和一片滚滚浓烟。这张照片成为越战中令人印象最深刻的一张，并获得普利策奖与1972年的世界新闻摄影比赛（荷赛）奖项。初看这张照片，我们会对美军在越南的行为进行谴责，我们甚至会理解成是美军丢下的炸弹从而带来的灾难。而实际情况是：1972年6月8日，当时南越军队正与北越军队在越南一个叫浪滂的地方交战。小女孩儿与家人跟随南越陆军与难民一起，从该地的一处寺庙逃往南越领地，遭南越飞行员误认为敌军而丢下炸弹轰炸。美国在这场战争中是否正义，是另一个话题。但这张照片，如果不加上文字说明和背景，会误导人以为是美军丢下的炸弹。后来，是几个美国军人将孩子送至医院，拯救了她。
图片说明的重要性，还体现在另一张越战的经典照片里。摄影师是美联社的艾迪·亚当斯（Eddie Adams）。1968年2月1日，南越警察阮玉鸾在西贡处决俘虏阮文敛。阮玉鸾（Nguyen Ngoc Loan）背对相机，右臂伸直，左臂垂在身侧。俘虏阮文敛没有穿制服，只穿着格子衬衫和黑色短裤。他的双手被反铐着。尽管有30多岁，看上去比一个男孩大不了多少。子弹的冲击力令他面部扭曲。
第二天早上，全美各地报纸的头版都刊发了这张照片。它与美国全国广播公司（NBC）的录像一起，让美国人对越南战争的残酷性有了清晰的认识，并推动了公共舆论的决定性转变。亚当斯的照片则让人质疑美国是否真的在为正义而战。它们加在一起，从两方面破坏了战争的理由，导致许多美国人得出结论，这场战争不仅不能赢，而且也不该赢。亚当斯的照片赢得了普利策奖，《时代》杂志称它为有史以来最有影响力的100张照片之一。
亚当斯于2004年去世，他生前曾对这张照片带来的后果表示不安。他指出，照片本质上总是会剔除背景，比如这张照片的背景是这名俘虏杀害了阮玉鸾手下一个警官的家人。他一共杀死了 30多人，包括几名美军。本来处决的是一个杀人凶手，结果却引发了全世界人们的同情。文字说明如果不详细，会产生意义完全相反的结果。“在这张照片中，有两个人死了，一位是被子弹打中的人，另一位是开枪的阮玉鸾，”他在《时代》杂志上写道。警察杀死了俘虏;而摄影师则用相机“杀死”了那名开枪的警察。也正因为如此，亚当斯写道：“静止的照片是这个世界上最强大的武器。”
照片有太多让人曲解的可能。自摄影术诞生以来，直到今天，摄影界对此依然仍然争论不休。好在荷赛这样的官方机构，曾对摄影师参赛要求做出一些规定：参赛者要确保自己的照片提供精确和公正的表达，确保公众不会被误导。摄影师在镜头的选择、光圈的设定、感光度的使用，甚至曝光组合上，都有可能影响摄影的真实性。所以，任何在画面中添加、倒转、反转、扭曲变形、移除人物或物体的行为都不允许；甚至连改变密度、对比度、调整颜色和饱和度在内的调整都应该被禁止。他们还规定：摄影记者也不允许使用影像曝光来柔化画面从而移除一些东西。无论多小的改变或者清除跟真相不相关的事情，都绝对不可以接受，更不能掩盖或清除画面中的物体、人物或背景。
一本书写下来，作者也无法得出结论：摄影是否能为我们找到真相。但是，她提出来的这些问题引发我们的思考，是有意义的。作为一个摄影人，我们要时刻警醒自己是否只看到了事物的表面，我们所拍摄的影像是否只能够表达出事物核心的一面。我们更要警惕一些摄影作品，要么摆拍要么修改图片内容，要么写上不实的图片说明，抑或是被剪裁或放大从而产生完全不一样的意义。我们要防止自己的照片被不同的人利用，从而偏离了想要表达的主题。
米歇尔·博格蕊还在书中给了我们一个善意提醒：影像并不客观，它与事物的真相相连，但它并不是事物的真相。有时候，有图未必有真相。如果我们一不小心，就有可能偏离真相，还有可能让我们在寻求真相的路上越走越远。
作者｜安光系
原文发表于《中国摄影报》2020年11月27日003国际版
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According to The Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China, The General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and The Provisional Opinions of the Supreme People’s Court on Some Issues Related to the Full Implementation of the General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and upon friendly negotiation, Party A and Party B have arrived at the following agreement regarding the use of works bearing Party A’s image in order to clarify the rights and obligations of the portrait licenser (Party A) and the user (Party B):
I. General Provisions
(1) Party A is the portraiture rights holder in this agreement. Party A voluntarily licenses its portraiture rights to Party B for the purposes stipulated in this agreement and permitted by law.
(2) Party B (CAFA Art Museum) is a specialized, international modern art museum. CAFA Art Museum keeps pace with the times, and works to create an open, free, and academic space and atmosphere for positive interaction with groups, corporations, institutions, artists, and visitors. With CAFA’s academic research as a foundation, the museum plans multi-disciplinary exhibitions, conferences, and public education events with participants from around the world, providing a platform for exchange, learning, and exhibition for CAFA’s students and instructors, artists from around the world, and the general public. As a public institution, the primary purposes of CAFA Art Museum’s public education events are academic and beneficial to society.
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(1) Content. The content of images taken by Party B bearing Party A’s likeness include: ① CAFA Art Museum ② CAFA campus ③ All events planned or executed by the CAFAM Public Education Department.
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(3) Geographical Scope of Use
The applicable geographic scope is global.
The media in which the portraiture may be used encompasses any media that does not infringe upon Party A’s portraiture rights (e.g., magazines and the internet).
III. Term of Portraiture Rights Use
Use in perpetuity.
IV. Licensing Fees
The fees for images bearing Party A’s likeness will be undertaken by Party B.
After completion, Party B does not need to pay any fees to Party A for images bearing Party A’s likeness.
Additional Terms
(1) All matters not discussed in this agreement shall be resolved through friendly negotiation between both parties. Both parties may then sign a supplementary agreement, provided it does not violate any laws or regulations.
(2) This agreement comes into effect on the date that it is signed (sealed) and the relevant boxes are selected by Party A and Party B.
(3) This agreement exists in paper and electronic forms. The paper form is made in duplicate, with Party A and Party B each retaining one copy with the same legal efficacy.
Event participants implicitly accept and undertake all the obligations stated in this agreement. Those who do not consent will be seen as abandoning the right to participate in this event. Before participating in this event, please speak to your family members to obtain their consent and inform them of this disclaimer. After participants sign/check the required box, participants and their families will be seen as having read and agreed to these terms.
I have carefully read and agree to the above provisions.
CAFA Art Museum Publication Authorization Agreement
I fully agree to CAFA Art Museum (CAFAM) submitting to CAFA for publication the images, pictures, texts, writings, and event products (such as works created during participation in workshops) related to me from my participation in public events (including museum member events) organized by the CAFA Art Museum Public Education Department. CAFA can publish these materials by electronic, web, or other digital means, and I hereby agree to be included in the China Knowledge Resource Bank, the CAFA Database, the CAFA Art Museum Database, and related data, documentation, and filing institutions and platforms. Regarding their use in CAFA and dissemination on the internet, I agree to make use of these rights according to the stated Rules.
CAFA Art Museum Event Safety Disclaimer
Article I
This event was organized on the principles of fairness, impartiality, and voluntary participation and withdrawal. Participants undertake all risk and liability for themselves. All events have risks, and participants must be aware of the risks related to their chosen event.
Article II
Event participants must abide by the laws and regulations of the People’s Republic of China, as well as moral and ethical norms. All participants must demonstrate good character, respect for others, friendship, and a willingness to help others.
Article III
Event participants should be adults (people 18 years or older with full civil legal capacity). Underage persons must be accompanied by an adult.
Article IV
Event participants undertake all liability for their personal safety during the event, and event participants are encouraged to purchase personal safety insurance. Should an accident occur during an event, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for the accident, but both have the obligation to provide assistance. Event participants should actively organize and implement rescue efforts, but do not undertake any legal or economic liability for the accident itself. The museum does not undertake civil or joint liability for the personal safety of event participants.
Article V
During the event, event participants should respect the order of the museum event and ensure the safety of the museum site, the artworks in displays, exhibitions, and collections, and the derived products. If an event causes any degree of loss or damage to the museum site, space, artworks, or derived products due to an individual, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for losses. The event participant must negotiate and provide compensation according to the relevant legal statutes and museum rules. The museum may sue for legal and financial liability.
Article VI
Event participants will participate in the event under the guidance of museum staff and event leaders or instructors and must correctly use the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities provided for the event. If a participant causes injury or harm to him/herself or others while using the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, or causes the damage or destruction of the tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, the event participant must undertake all related liability and provide compensation for the financial losses. Persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for personal accidents.
CAFA Art Museum Portraiture Rights Licensing Agreement
According to The Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China, The General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and The Provisional Opinions of the Supreme People’s Court on Some Issues Related to the Full Implementation of the General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and upon friendly negotiation, Party A and Party B have arrived at the following agreement regarding the use of works bearing Party A’s image in order to clarify the rights and obligations of the portrait licenser (Party A) and the user (Party B):
I. General Provisions
(1) Party A is the portraiture rights holder in this agreement. Party A voluntarily licenses its portraiture rights to Party B for the purposes stipulated in this agreement and permitted by law.
(2) Party B (CAFA Art Museum) is a specialized, international modern art museum. CAFA Art Museum keeps pace with the times, and works to create an open, free, and academic space and atmosphere for positive interaction with groups, corporations, institutions, artists, and visitors. With CAFA’s academic research as a foundation, the museum plans multi-disciplinary exhibitions, conferences, and public education events with participants from around the world, providing a platform for exchange, learning, and exhibition for CAFA’s students and instructors, artists from around the world, and the general public. As a public institution, the primary purposes of CAFA Art Museum’s public education events are academic and beneficial to society.
(3) Party B will photograph all CAFA Public Education Department events for Party A.
II. Content, Forms of Use, and Geographical Scope of Use
(1) Content. The content of images taken by Party B bearing Party A’s likeness include: ① CAFA Art Museum ② CAFA campus ③ All events planned or executed by the CAFAM Public Education Department.
(2) Forms of Use. For use in CAFA’s publications, products with CDs, and promotional materials.
(3) Geographical Scope of Use
The applicable geographic scope is global.
The media in which the portraiture may be used encompasses any media that does not infringe upon Party A’s portraiture rights (e.g., magazines and the internet).
III. Term of Portraiture Rights Use
Use in perpetuity.
IV. Licensing Fees
The fees for images bearing Party A’s likeness will be undertaken by Party B.
After completion, Party B does not need to pay any fees to Party A for images bearing Party A’s likeness.
Additional Terms
(1) All matters not discussed in this agreement shall be resolved through friendly negotiation between both parties. Both parties may then sign a supplementary agreement, provided it does not violate any laws or regulations.
(2) This agreement comes into effect on the date that it is signed (sealed) and the relevant boxes are selected by Party A and Party B.
(3) This agreement exists in paper and electronic forms. The paper form is made in duplicate, with Party A and Party B each retaining one copy with the same legal efficacy.
Event participants implicitly accept and undertake all the obligations stated in this agreement. Those who do not consent will be seen as abandoning the right to participate in this event. Before participating in this event, please speak to your family members to obtain their consent and inform them of this disclaimer. After participants sign/check the required box, participants and their families will be seen as having read and agreed to these terms.
I have carefully read and agree to the above provisions.
CAFA Art Museum Publication Authorization Agreement
I fully agree to CAFA Art Museum (CAFAM) submitting to CAFA for publication the images, pictures, texts, writings, and event products (such as works created during participation in workshops) related to me from my participation in public events (including museum member events) organized by the CAFA Art Museum Public Education Department. CAFA can publish these materials by electronic, web, or other digital means, and I hereby agree to be included in the China Knowledge Resource Bank, the CAFA Database, the CAFA Art Museum Database, and related data, documentation, and filing institutions and platforms. Regarding their use in CAFA and dissemination on the internet, I agree to make use of these rights according to the stated Rules.
CAFA Art Museum Event Safety Disclaimer
Article I
This event was organized on the principles of fairness, impartiality, and voluntary participation and withdrawal. Participants undertake all risk and liability for themselves. All events have risks, and participants must be aware of the risks related to their chosen event.
Article II
Event participants must abide by the laws and regulations of the People’s Republic of China, as well as moral and ethical norms. All participants must demonstrate good character, respect for others, friendship, and a willingness to help others.
Article III
Event participants should be adults (people 18 years or older with full civil legal capacity). Underage persons must be accompanied by an adult.
Article IV
Event participants undertake all liability for their personal safety during the event, and event participants are encouraged to purchase personal safety insurance. Should an accident occur during an event, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for the accident, but both have the obligation to provide assistance. Event participants should actively organize and implement rescue efforts, but do not undertake any legal or economic liability for the accident itself. The museum does not undertake civil or joint liability for the personal safety of event participants.
Article V
During the event, event participants should respect the order of the museum event and ensure the safety of the museum site, the artworks in displays, exhibitions, and collections, and the derived products. If an event causes any degree of loss or damage to the museum site, space, artworks, or derived products due to an individual, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for losses. The event participant must negotiate and provide compensation according to the relevant legal statutes and museum rules. The museum may sue for legal and financial liability.
Article VI
Event participants will participate in the event under the guidance of museum staff and event leaders or instructors and must correctly use the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities provided for the event. If a participant causes injury or harm to him/herself or others while using the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, or causes the damage or destruction of the tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, the event participant must undertake all related liability and provide compensation for the financial losses. Persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for personal accidents.
CAFA Art Museum Portraiture Rights Licensing Agreement
According to The Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China, The General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and The Provisional Opinions of the Supreme People’s Court on Some Issues Related to the Full Implementation of the General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and upon friendly negotiation, Party A and Party B have arrived at the following agreement regarding the use of works bearing Party A’s image in order to clarify the rights and obligations of the portrait licenser (Party A) and the user (Party B):
I. General Provisions
(1) Party A is the portraiture rights holder in this agreement. Party A voluntarily licenses its portraiture rights to Party B for the purposes stipulated in this agreement and permitted by law.
(2) Party B (CAFA Art Museum) is a specialized, international modern art museum. CAFA Art Museum keeps pace with the times, and works to create an open, free, and academic space and atmosphere for positive interaction with groups, corporations, institutions, artists, and visitors. With CAFA’s academic research as a foundation, the museum plans multi-disciplinary exhibitions, conferences, and public education events with participants from around the world, providing a platform for exchange, learning, and exhibition for CAFA’s students and instructors, artists from around the world, and the general public. As a public institution, the primary purposes of CAFA Art Museum’s public education events are academic and beneficial to society.
(3) Party B will photograph all CAFA Public Education Department events for Party A.
II. Content, Forms of Use, and Geographical Scope of Use
(1) Content. The content of images taken by Party B bearing Party A’s likeness include: ① CAFA Art Museum ② CAFA campus ③ All events planned or executed by the CAFAM Public Education Department.
(2) Forms of Use. For use in CAFA’s publications, products with CDs, and promotional materials.
(3) Geographical Scope of Use
The applicable geographic scope is global.
The media in which the portraiture may be used encompasses any media that does not infringe upon Party A’s portraiture rights (e.g., magazines and the internet).
III. Term of Portraiture Rights Use
Use in perpetuity.
IV. Licensing Fees
The fees for images bearing Party A’s likeness will be undertaken by Party B.
After completion, Party B does not need to pay any fees to Party A for images bearing Party A’s likeness.
Additional Terms
(1) All matters not discussed in this agreement shall be resolved through friendly negotiation between both parties. Both parties may then sign a supplementary agreement, provided it does not violate any laws or regulations.
(2) This agreement comes into effect on the date that it is signed (sealed) and the relevant boxes are selected by Party A and Party B.
(3) This agreement exists in paper and electronic forms. The paper form is made in duplicate, with Party A and Party B each retaining one copy with the same legal efficacy.
Event participants implicitly accept and undertake all the obligations stated in this agreement. Those who do not consent will be seen as abandoning the right to participate in this event. Before participating in this event, please speak to your family members to obtain their consent and inform them of this disclaimer. After participants sign/check the required box, participants and their families will be seen as having read and agreed to these terms.
I have carefully read and agree to the above provisions.
