纪实走向
在这一利用从西方引人的各种摄影风格进行试验的“多样化时期”之后，到80年代后半叶，纪实摄影逐渐成为新潮运动的主流。【16】和美国20世纪30年代纪实摄影运动类似，中国纪实摄影作品也与当时的社会和政治环境密切相关。它们的内容、形式和手法服务于摄影家们为之献身的社会改革潮流。总的说来，这些作品沿循两个主要方向，都是针对“文革”期间的政治宣传艺术做出回应。第一个方向与当时流行的“乡土美术”密切相连，作为80年代重要的艺术类型，这一美术潮流倡导对普通人民和中国文明的“永恒精神”的表现；第二个方向是与“伤痕美术”及“伤痕文学”联系，以中国社会中人的悲剧作为主题。
两种潮流都开始于70年代末。朱宪民是最早从事“乡土”类摄影项目的摄影家之一。从1979年到1984年，他先后八次回到黄河岸边的家乡（通常被认为是中华文明的摇篮），拍摄当地群众和他们的生活。【17】80年代初到80年代中期，当影会在一些省市出现时，它们的许多成员以“寻求中华民族文化之根”为使命。其中最早也最著名的是“陕西群体”（有时被称为“西北风”），其“复归现实”的宣言可以说是对以往富有未来主义色彩的“革命现实主义”理论的一个反动。城市里的摄影家也受了这种思潮的影响，例如两位资深的北京非官方摄影家王志平和王苗加入到这一潮流中，前往西北进行实地考察。当他们的摄影作品出现在1985年1期《现代摄影》上时，同时刊登的文字被摄影同行誉为是这类纪实摄影的一项宣言，他们写道：“我努力想要描绘下你的面容，记录下你对我的启示（“你”指祖国）。当然，我不敢将你描眉扑粉，打扮成画报封面上微笑的女郎。那是你吗？不，那是肤浅，那是虚伪，那是衰渎!你的伟大和魅力，我坚信：只能存在于真实之中。”【18】但也就是在此时此刻，所谓“对人的真实的纪录”开始具有越来越多的象征意义。摄影家在理想主义的驱使下，有时甚至采取了近乎民族主义宣传的影像和语言。
虽然这两种纪实摄影都强调平实质朴的风格，尽量减少摄影家对现实与再现的介人，但乡土类作品所创造的是非历史的、浪漫的影像，带有强烈的民族志兴趣；而伤痕类摄影就其本质而言是历史性的，批判性的，把刚刚过去的中国历史想象成为一系列断裂的影像，述说人类对社会或自然灾难的体验。就很多个案而言，第二种类型的影像记录了会永远消失的历史事件。这就是一些讨论者为什么把这类摄影追朔到1976年“四五”运动的原因。【19】尽管出于业余摄影者之手，这些未经雕饰的影像为我们保存了现代中国史上一个特定时刻的痕迹，这些影像所凝和的记忆赋予它们一种近乎魔力的品质。“四五影像”还开启了与纪实摄影相关的又一重要传统一对于情感语言的重视。这种情感语言随后左右了对纪实影像的观感和评判，其推崇者认为对历史事件或社会现象的视觉记录应该直接、有力、感人，通过“叙述真实”来引发观者的强烈情感共鸣。
代表纪实摄影这一历史和批评传统的成熟作品在70年代末期就已开始出现。一些摄影家承继“四五”运动遗风，发起各类项目用以“记录”以往为艺术和媒体所忽视的中国社会层面。其中的一个项目是李晓斌的“上访者”，触及到大多数艺术家和新闻记者所忽略的一种重要社会现象：那就是成千上万的“上访者”，通常是边远地区的“文革”受害者，从1977年到1980年充斥在北京的街道上。由于无法通过地方司法系统得到公正的裁断，他们来到首都直接向中央政府申诉。他们在国家司法部、民政部或公安部前等待数星期甚至数月，备受创伤身心疲惫，希望他们的申诉能够得到回应。但是他们当中没有几个人能成功得到回应。于是他们继续等待，直到被遣送回乡为止。李晓斌拍了上千张这些希望渺茫、无家可归者的照片。【20】其中一张（可能是这一时期中国纪实摄影作品中最感人的作品）抓拍了一位在天安门广场附近游荡，面容憔悴的“上访者”，他目光呆滞、神情恍惚、不知所措。照片发表后在社会上引起强烈反响，有同情者也有批评者。其结果是一幅纪实摄影照片具有了普遍象征性，其意义远远超出了照片本身的具体内容。【21】
这两种不同风格的纪实摄影齐头并进、共同发展，在1985年以后大量出现在各种摄影期刊和展览上。【22】继之而来的是个体艺术家对新纪实题材的热切探寻，一个特定题材往往成为一个摄影家的特定标志。【23】例如，吴家林因为他的云南佤族民族志影像而为人所知；于德水由于记录黄河一带的生活而几次获奖；吕楠和袁冬平数年间拍摄全国各地的精神病院。吕楠后来又发展了一种新的题材，表现乡村的地下天主教会，而袁冬平则开始着手题为“穷人”的大型拍摄计划。这两位摄影家的作品综合了伤痕和乡土两种传统，因此也与这两种传统拉开了距离。他们的题材一精神病患者、盲童、智障儿童、病残老人和无家可归者等一都是普通人，但他们又都是受了伤害、被忽视的人。这些人的问题并非由特定的政治或社会事件引起，事实上，造成伤害的原因在这些作品中相对来讲变得并不重要。面对这些作品，人们既看不到李晓斌社会影像中的紧张的对抗性，也看不到乡土艺术中对普通人的浪漫美化。艺术家们摆脱了早期的社会批判或诗意模式，更多地依靠相对客观的表现，让影像自己说话。
出于对新纪实题材的不断追寻，也出于中国城市的快速变化，越来越多的摄影家开始将注意力放在城市的面貌：不断变化的都市景观、传统建筑和生活的“废墟”、西方文化和市场经济的侵入、城市新人口的身份和生活等等。从一开始，这类作品即暴露出传统纪实摄影中追求自然主义和客观性的局限，因为任何“客观”风格都和当代城市瞬息万变的特质以及摄影家对都市生活的自我参与格格不人。于是，像顾铮、莫毅、张海儿这样具有创意的摄影家便开始发展纪实摄影之外的新观念和新语言，容许他们不仅能够再现客观现实，同时也能对这一现实做出主观的回应。【24】在从纪实摄影向观念摄影的转变中，张海儿可说是最成功的一位。他运用慢快门加闪光灯拍出的广州街景既真实又虚幻，黑色的背景衬托出作者模糊变形的脸孔，对着镜头大声地尖叫。他的广州“坏女孩”肖像是这类影像中年代最早的。与典型的纪实摄影家不同，张海儿没有将自己置于他的题材之外，而是把自己与这些年轻女子的沟通变成表现的真正焦点。观看这些影像也就是在望进这些女子的眼睛，在那里，我们不仅发现她们的恐惧和欲望，也发现摄影家沉默的存在。【25】
至80年代末，新潮摄影在很大程度上已经完成了在中国重新确立摄影艺术地位的历史使命。新的摄影类型开始形成，与方兴未艾的前卫艺术联手共进。【26】1988年张海儿及其他四位摄影家应邀参加法国阿力斯摄影节，中国新摄影几乎在一夜之间引起了国际艺术界的关注。这种来自海外的兴趣反过来激发其他中国摄影家在纪实摄影和艺术摄影之外探索新的领域。正当中国摄影似乎正在进人一个新的发展阶段时，一些前卫艺术刊物停刊，在接下来的两三年里也没有任何开拓性的摄影展览出现。现存的摄影期刊多是刊登避免政治和艺术争议的作品。在这样的氛围里，艺术摄影和纪实摄影变得更没有前瞻性和创造性。因此，当90年代初、中期新一代摄影家重新出现时，他们所面临的挑战不仅仅是创造新的形象，他们还需要重新定义作为独立艺术家的身份。
文章节选自巫鸿《过去与未来之间：中国摄影简史》
原文发表于《过去与将来之间：中国新影像展》图录，2004年
注释：
【16】有些批评家把这种摄影称之为“新纪实摄影”，以区别官方所提倡的“社会现实主义”纪实摄影。按照他们的说法，1986年由“现代摄影沙龙”组织的一次名为“中国摄影十年”展览，标志着纪实摄影统治地位的确立。
【17】有关的介绍见《中国当代摄影家解读》，浙江摄影出版社，2002年版，第35-49页。
【18】王志平、王苗：《西部中国漫游》，见《现代摄影》1984年，第3期，第34页。至于为何把他们的文章看成是纪实摄影宣言，见《中国新纪实主义摄影之潮》，《中国当代摄影艺术思潮》，第61页。
【19】同上注，第56页。
【20】李晓斌自己提供了有关“上访者”的最权威的记录。见李晓斌的文章《关于“上访者”的拍摄及其他》，《老照片》第15期，第126-133页。
【21】这一形象与多萝丝·兰格（Dorothea Lange）的《移民母亲》有异曲同工之妙。格拉汉姆·克拉克（Graham Clarke）分析兰格创造的这一形象时说：“在此，兰格通过母亲和孩子的形象，创造了一个充满感情的主题。处在照片中心位置的母亲，没有丈夫的陪伴，母亲寻觅的眼光，这一切都通过母亲这一形象来加强情感的表达。我们与其把她看成是现实生活中的真实存在，不如把她看成是一种象征。正如兰格所承认的那样，她对‘她的名字或她的经历’不感兴趣。”The Photograph（Oxford and New York： Oxford University Press，1997），第153页。同样，我们对李晓斌照片中的男人也是一无所知。
【22】关于这些展览，参见《中国新纪实主义摄影之潮》，第63页；《回顾一段往事，相识一代新人：谈话录》，《摄影透视》，第104-105页。
【23】关于12位重要纪实摄影艺术家及其题材的介绍，参见《中国当代摄影家解读》。
【24】顾铮拍摄的上海影像和他所追求的个人风格，见《都市速写系列》，载于《现代摄影》12-13（1988年），第34-35页，以及同期第80页刊登的文章《我的上海》。有关莫毅的《街道表情》系列（表现80年代末到90年代初天津城市变化），见WuHung（巫鸿）：Transience： Chinese Experimental Artatthe End of the 20th Century. （Chicago：Smart Museum of Art， University of Chicago， 1999），第60-65页。
【25】有关张海儿这类题材摄影的启发性讨论，见杨小彦：《镜头与奴性——看与被看的命运》，《读书》第279期（2002年6月），第3-12页。
【26】作为这一联盟趋向的先锋，张海儿确立了自己与前卫艺术家的密切关系。和90年代众多实验摄影艺术家们一样，张海儿受过正规的绘画训练，后来才开始从事摄影艺术创作。他的作品也发表在由艾未未、曾小俊、庄辉合编的前卫艺术杂志《黑皮书》的续编《白皮书》上。
CAFA Art Museum Publication Authorization Agreement
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According to The Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China, The General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and The Provisional Opinions of the Supreme People’s Court on Some Issues Related to the Full Implementation of the General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and upon friendly negotiation, Party A and Party B have arrived at the following agreement regarding the use of works bearing Party A’s image in order to clarify the rights and obligations of the portrait licenser (Party A) and the user (Party B):
I. General Provisions
(1) Party A is the portraiture rights holder in this agreement. Party A voluntarily licenses its portraiture rights to Party B for the purposes stipulated in this agreement and permitted by law.
(2) Party B (CAFA Art Museum) is a specialized, international modern art museum. CAFA Art Museum keeps pace with the times, and works to create an open, free, and academic space and atmosphere for positive interaction with groups, corporations, institutions, artists, and visitors. With CAFA’s academic research as a foundation, the museum plans multi-disciplinary exhibitions, conferences, and public education events with participants from around the world, providing a platform for exchange, learning, and exhibition for CAFA’s students and instructors, artists from around the world, and the general public. As a public institution, the primary purposes of CAFA Art Museum’s public education events are academic and beneficial to society.
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(1) Content. The content of images taken by Party B bearing Party A’s likeness include: ① CAFA Art Museum ② CAFA campus ③ All events planned or executed by the CAFAM Public Education Department.
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The applicable geographic scope is global.
The media in which the portraiture may be used encompasses any media that does not infringe upon Party A’s portraiture rights (e.g., magazines and the internet).
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Use in perpetuity.
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The fees for images bearing Party A’s likeness will be undertaken by Party B.
After completion, Party B does not need to pay any fees to Party A for images bearing Party A’s likeness.
Additional Terms
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CAFA Art Museum Publication Authorization Agreement
I fully agree to CAFA Art Museum (CAFAM) submitting to CAFA for publication the images, pictures, texts, writings, and event products (such as works created during participation in workshops) related to me from my participation in public events (including museum member events) organized by the CAFA Art Museum Public Education Department. CAFA can publish these materials by electronic, web, or other digital means, and I hereby agree to be included in the China Knowledge Resource Bank, the CAFA Database, the CAFA Art Museum Database, and related data, documentation, and filing institutions and platforms. Regarding their use in CAFA and dissemination on the internet, I agree to make use of these rights according to the stated Rules.
CAFA Art Museum Event Safety Disclaimer
Article I
This event was organized on the principles of fairness, impartiality, and voluntary participation and withdrawal. Participants undertake all risk and liability for themselves. All events have risks, and participants must be aware of the risks related to their chosen event.
Article II
Event participants must abide by the laws and regulations of the People’s Republic of China, as well as moral and ethical norms. All participants must demonstrate good character, respect for others, friendship, and a willingness to help others.
Article III
Event participants should be adults (people 18 years or older with full civil legal capacity). Underage persons must be accompanied by an adult.
Article IV
Event participants undertake all liability for their personal safety during the event, and event participants are encouraged to purchase personal safety insurance. Should an accident occur during an event, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for the accident, but both have the obligation to provide assistance. Event participants should actively organize and implement rescue efforts, but do not undertake any legal or economic liability for the accident itself. The museum does not undertake civil or joint liability for the personal safety of event participants.
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During the event, event participants should respect the order of the museum event and ensure the safety of the museum site, the artworks in displays, exhibitions, and collections, and the derived products. If an event causes any degree of loss or damage to the museum site, space, artworks, or derived products due to an individual, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for losses. The event participant must negotiate and provide compensation according to the relevant legal statutes and museum rules. The museum may sue for legal and financial liability.
Article VI
Event participants will participate in the event under the guidance of museum staff and event leaders or instructors and must correctly use the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities provided for the event. If a participant causes injury or harm to him/herself or others while using the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, or causes the damage or destruction of the tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, the event participant must undertake all related liability and provide compensation for the financial losses. Persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for personal accidents.
CAFA Art Museum Portraiture Rights Licensing Agreement
According to The Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China, The General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and The Provisional Opinions of the Supreme People’s Court on Some Issues Related to the Full Implementation of the General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and upon friendly negotiation, Party A and Party B have arrived at the following agreement regarding the use of works bearing Party A’s image in order to clarify the rights and obligations of the portrait licenser (Party A) and the user (Party B):
I. General Provisions
(1) Party A is the portraiture rights holder in this agreement. Party A voluntarily licenses its portraiture rights to Party B for the purposes stipulated in this agreement and permitted by law.
(2) Party B (CAFA Art Museum) is a specialized, international modern art museum. CAFA Art Museum keeps pace with the times, and works to create an open, free, and academic space and atmosphere for positive interaction with groups, corporations, institutions, artists, and visitors. With CAFA’s academic research as a foundation, the museum plans multi-disciplinary exhibitions, conferences, and public education events with participants from around the world, providing a platform for exchange, learning, and exhibition for CAFA’s students and instructors, artists from around the world, and the general public. As a public institution, the primary purposes of CAFA Art Museum’s public education events are academic and beneficial to society.
(3) Party B will photograph all CAFA Public Education Department events for Party A.
II. Content, Forms of Use, and Geographical Scope of Use
(1) Content. The content of images taken by Party B bearing Party A’s likeness include: ① CAFA Art Museum ② CAFA campus ③ All events planned or executed by the CAFAM Public Education Department.
(2) Forms of Use. For use in CAFA’s publications, products with CDs, and promotional materials.
(3) Geographical Scope of Use
The applicable geographic scope is global.
The media in which the portraiture may be used encompasses any media that does not infringe upon Party A’s portraiture rights (e.g., magazines and the internet).
III. Term of Portraiture Rights Use
Use in perpetuity.
IV. Licensing Fees
The fees for images bearing Party A’s likeness will be undertaken by Party B.
After completion, Party B does not need to pay any fees to Party A for images bearing Party A’s likeness.
Additional Terms
(1) All matters not discussed in this agreement shall be resolved through friendly negotiation between both parties. Both parties may then sign a supplementary agreement, provided it does not violate any laws or regulations.
(2) This agreement comes into effect on the date that it is signed (sealed) and the relevant boxes are selected by Party A and Party B.
(3) This agreement exists in paper and electronic forms. The paper form is made in duplicate, with Party A and Party B each retaining one copy with the same legal efficacy.
Event participants implicitly accept and undertake all the obligations stated in this agreement. Those who do not consent will be seen as abandoning the right to participate in this event. Before participating in this event, please speak to your family members to obtain their consent and inform them of this disclaimer. After participants sign/check the required box, participants and their families will be seen as having read and agreed to these terms.
I have carefully read and agree to the above provisions.
CAFA Art Museum Publication Authorization Agreement
I fully agree to CAFA Art Museum (CAFAM) submitting to CAFA for publication the images, pictures, texts, writings, and event products (such as works created during participation in workshops) related to me from my participation in public events (including museum member events) organized by the CAFA Art Museum Public Education Department. CAFA can publish these materials by electronic, web, or other digital means, and I hereby agree to be included in the China Knowledge Resource Bank, the CAFA Database, the CAFA Art Museum Database, and related data, documentation, and filing institutions and platforms. Regarding their use in CAFA and dissemination on the internet, I agree to make use of these rights according to the stated Rules.
CAFA Art Museum Event Safety Disclaimer
Article I
This event was organized on the principles of fairness, impartiality, and voluntary participation and withdrawal. Participants undertake all risk and liability for themselves. All events have risks, and participants must be aware of the risks related to their chosen event.
Article II
Event participants must abide by the laws and regulations of the People’s Republic of China, as well as moral and ethical norms. All participants must demonstrate good character, respect for others, friendship, and a willingness to help others.
Article III
Event participants should be adults (people 18 years or older with full civil legal capacity). Underage persons must be accompanied by an adult.
Article IV
Event participants undertake all liability for their personal safety during the event, and event participants are encouraged to purchase personal safety insurance. Should an accident occur during an event, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for the accident, but both have the obligation to provide assistance. Event participants should actively organize and implement rescue efforts, but do not undertake any legal or economic liability for the accident itself. The museum does not undertake civil or joint liability for the personal safety of event participants.
Article V
During the event, event participants should respect the order of the museum event and ensure the safety of the museum site, the artworks in displays, exhibitions, and collections, and the derived products. If an event causes any degree of loss or damage to the museum site, space, artworks, or derived products due to an individual, persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for losses. The event participant must negotiate and provide compensation according to the relevant legal statutes and museum rules. The museum may sue for legal and financial liability.
Article VI
Event participants will participate in the event under the guidance of museum staff and event leaders or instructors and must correctly use the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities provided for the event. If a participant causes injury or harm to him/herself or others while using the painting tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, or causes the damage or destruction of the tools, materials, equipment, and/or facilities, the event participant must undertake all related liability and provide compensation for the financial losses. Persons not involved in the accident and the museum do not undertake any liability for personal accidents.
CAFA Art Museum Portraiture Rights Licensing Agreement
According to The Advertising Law of the People’s Republic of China, The General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and The Provisional Opinions of the Supreme People’s Court on Some Issues Related to the Full Implementation of the General Principles of the Civil Law of the People’s Republic of China, and upon friendly negotiation, Party A and Party B have arrived at the following agreement regarding the use of works bearing Party A’s image in order to clarify the rights and obligations of the portrait licenser (Party A) and the user (Party B):
I. General Provisions
(1) Party A is the portraiture rights holder in this agreement. Party A voluntarily licenses its portraiture rights to Party B for the purposes stipulated in this agreement and permitted by law.
(2) Party B (CAFA Art Museum) is a specialized, international modern art museum. CAFA Art Museum keeps pace with the times, and works to create an open, free, and academic space and atmosphere for positive interaction with groups, corporations, institutions, artists, and visitors. With CAFA’s academic research as a foundation, the museum plans multi-disciplinary exhibitions, conferences, and public education events with participants from around the world, providing a platform for exchange, learning, and exhibition for CAFA’s students and instructors, artists from around the world, and the general public. As a public institution, the primary purposes of CAFA Art Museum’s public education events are academic and beneficial to society.
(3) Party B will photograph all CAFA Public Education Department events for Party A.
II. Content, Forms of Use, and Geographical Scope of Use
(1) Content. The content of images taken by Party B bearing Party A’s likeness include: ① CAFA Art Museum ② CAFA campus ③ All events planned or executed by the CAFAM Public Education Department.
(2) Forms of Use. For use in CAFA’s publications, products with CDs, and promotional materials.
(3) Geographical Scope of Use
The applicable geographic scope is global.
The media in which the portraiture may be used encompasses any media that does not infringe upon Party A’s portraiture rights (e.g., magazines and the internet).
III. Term of Portraiture Rights Use
Use in perpetuity.
IV. Licensing Fees
The fees for images bearing Party A’s likeness will be undertaken by Party B.
After completion, Party B does not need to pay any fees to Party A for images bearing Party A’s likeness.
Additional Terms
(1) All matters not discussed in this agreement shall be resolved through friendly negotiation between both parties. Both parties may then sign a supplementary agreement, provided it does not violate any laws or regulations.
(2) This agreement comes into effect on the date that it is signed (sealed) and the relevant boxes are selected by Party A and Party B.
(3) This agreement exists in paper and electronic forms. The paper form is made in duplicate, with Party A and Party B each retaining one copy with the same legal efficacy.
Event participants implicitly accept and undertake all the obligations stated in this agreement. Those who do not consent will be seen as abandoning the right to participate in this event. Before participating in this event, please speak to your family members to obtain their consent and inform them of this disclaimer. After participants sign/check the required box, participants and their families will be seen as having read and agreed to these terms.
I have carefully read and agree to the above provisions.
